Han Period Research Articles

Historical phonological explanation of the mutual connection between the * et and * it rhyme groups: A study on the phonetic changes

摘要: 月2 部*et、质部*it 原本是泾渭分明的不同韵部，后来能够跨部相通， 是历史音变的结果和反映。两部相通萌芽于西汉，显著于东汉，主要 集中在三、四等韵。两部入声四等韵相通，是质屑、月2 屑合流为中古 《切韵》四等屑韵的先声；两部去声四等韵相通，是质霁、月2 霁合流 为中古《切韵》四等霁韵的先声。两部三等韵相通主要集中在舌齿音 声母，但不见于河洛雅音，可能是方音现象，中古《切韵》音系中薛 韵字的质韵异读，以及祭韵字的至韵异读，可能源自该方言创新音变 的影响。 ABSTRACT: The interaction between the *et and *it rhyme groups, originally distinct rhyme groups, later being able to cross boundaries, is a result and reflection of historical phonetic changes. The germination of their mutual connection can be traced back to the Western Han period but became significant during the Eastern Han, primarily concentrated in the Division III and IV rhyme categories. The mutual connection of the two rhyme groups in the entering-tone (入声) of the Division IV (四等韵) signifies the merger of the *eet>eet(月2屑) and *iit>ᵉiit>eet(质屑) subgroups, resulting in the Middle Chinese Qieyun(《切韵》) Division IV 屑rhyme. Similarly, the mutual connection of the two rhyme groups in the departing-tone (去声) of the Division IV(四等韵) indicates the merging of the *eets>eets(月2霁) and *iits>ᵉiits>eets(质霁) subgroups, forming the Middle Chinese Qieyun(《切 韵》) Division IV 霁rhyme. The mutual connection of the two rhyme groups in the Division III (三等韵) is primarily concentrated in alveolar initials, but is not observed in the Heluo Yayin (河洛雅音) system, suggesting a potential regional phonetic phenomenon. The divergent readings of 质 rhymes in the 薛 rhyme category and the unusual readings of the 至 rhymes in the 祭 rhyme category in Middle Chinese Qieyun (《切韵》) phonology may be attributed to the influence of innovative phonetic changes in this dialect.

Microstructural and elemental analyses of slags excavated from the Gushishan iron‐smelting site, Sichuan Province, China

AbstractThe Shu Commandery was an important iron production center in southwest China during the Han Dynasty (202 BC‐AD 220). In 2007, archaeologists excavated a Han Dynasty smelting furnace (L1) at the Gushishan site and collected large amounts of smelting remains including slags, furnace bricks, and ores. Scientific analysis of the excavated slags was carried out to ascertain that the Gushishan site was a pig iron smelting site. No flux was used at the Gushishan site, and the site is dated no later than the Eastern Han period. No remains related to iron casting of the Han Dynasty was found at or near the iron smelting sites in southwest China, which indicates a separation between iron smelting and iron casting as characteristics of the industrial layout in this region.

Features of Ugly but Capable Women of Ancient China.

The aim of this study was to analyze the appearance of women viewed as "ugly but capable" in ancient China. A Google search was conducted for the "Four Great Ugly Women." Information on 3 women was collected from Lienüzhuana, a collection of biographies of eminent women compiled by the Former Han period. With the addition of 1 (Huang Yueying), 7 "ugly but capable" women were analyzed. The manifestations of their ugliness in the texts were recorded. Among the 7 women, 5 exhibited physical manifestations, whereas the remaining 2 were simply described as "ugly" without specific characteristics. Among the discernible body characteristics of the 5 women deemed unattractive, the most common feature was dark skin (80%), followed by body shape (60%). Other frequently observed traits included sparse or yellow hair, an upturned or overly large nose, a convex forehead, and an unattractive neck (each at 40%), with the latter potentially exhibiting a protruding Adam's apple, a thick neck, or a neck mass. Less common features were sunken eyes, a large head, and a masculine skeleton, each occurring in 20% of cases. Based on the depiction of women considered unattractive, the authors can infer that dark skin, a fat body, a large or upturned nose, sparse hair, a protruding forehead, a thick neck, deep-set eyes, and a large head were elements associated with ugliness. Through the description of the ugly woman, authors can infer the standards of ugliness in ancient China.

한(漢)부터 당(唐)까지의 발해(渤海) 위치 재고(再考)

Bohai(渤海) Sea, which was crossed by Han(漢) Dynasty in 109 BC when Han(漢) attacked Gojoseon(古朝鮮), and Bo'xie(勃澥) Sea which was crossed by Sui(隋) Dynasty in 612 AD when Sui(隋) attacked Goguryeo(高句麗) were the same sea, but they were not the current Bohai(渤海) Sea that is the northern sea of the current Yellow Sea(黃海). At that time, Bohai(渤海) Sea was like a huge inland lake in the lower part of the Yellow River. This fact can be confirmed by many records of Bohai flooding, Bohai's bank bursting, and Bohai's distance from Luoyang(雒陽). The fact that the ancient cities related to Bohai were located in the north and south around the Yellow River also corroborates it. Shiji(史記) records there were two seas which were close to Gojoseon(古朝鮮) during the Earlier Han(前漢) period, the Bohai Sea(渤海) and the North Sea(北 海), and they were different seas which existed at the same time. Specifically, it is proved by this study that the ancient Bohai Sea(渤海) was in the southern Hebei Province(河北省) of China, and the current Bohai Sea was called as the North Sea(北海). Therefore, the Bohai Sea(渤海, 勃澥) that Han(漢) Dynasty and Sui(隋) Dynasty had crossed to attack Gojoseon and Goguryeo can not be the current Bohai Sea(past North Sea), but the ancient Bohai Sea, which was inland in the Central Plain(中原) of China. These fact proves that the current global scholars’ assignment of the capitals of Gojoseon and Goguryeo to Pyongyang(平壤), North Korea, is most likely in error. This is because if the Bohai Sea(渤海) was inland in the Central Plain(中原) of China, it means that the Han(漢) and Sui(隋) dynasties crossed the sea that was not the sea that they had to cross to attack Pyongyang(平壤), North Korea. In other words, it can be inferred that the capitals of Gojoseon and Goguryeo were in the northern part of present-day Hebei Province (near Beijing) of China, not in the Korean Peninsula.

Attribution Issues of the Showpiece of the State Museum of the East. On the Example of the "Head with a three-legged toad"

The object of this research is the activity of the museum in the field of storage, study and attribution of monuments of material culture. The subject of the work is an showpiece of the permanent collection of the Art of China section of the State Museum of Oriental Art, designated as "A Head with a three-legged toad". The purpose of this article is to consider the problems of attribution of this museum object and propose ways to solve them for subsequent re-attribution based on new information obtained during the study. The author examines the connection of the "Head ..." with mass culture, analyzes the data of the State Museum of the East on the alleged real prototypes of sculpture, as well as the legitimacy of the assumptions put forward. Special attention is paid to the importance of the museum's constant study of primary sources – stored objects, updating information about them through new research and technologies. The work on the research was carried out within the framework of an interdisciplinary approach, using such methods as historical-typological, historical-genetic, comparative analysis, as well as the method of interpreting a work of art. In the course of the analysis, the author provides information on the basis of which the correctness of the statements in the official information channels of the State Museum of the East regarding the showpiece "Head with a three-legged toad" is questioned. The dating of the object to the Han period is questioned, since the life years of the personalities indicated as possible prototypes of the "Head..." – Hou-xian, Liu Har and Guo Xiang – belong to a later time. It is noted that the intended purpose of the "Head ..." – the replacement of the real one in the burial of a decapitated person – turns out to be a rather late practice and does not correlate with the dating of the creation of the showpiece. A hypothesis is put forward about the possible non-Chinese origin of the tradition of this type of images. The collected data can become the basis for the re-attribution of the showpiece, a more thorough study of it and filling in the "white spots" in its biography. The identification of a more accurate and definite dating and the region of origin of this museum object will positively affect the comprehensive knowledge about it, expand information about the funerary culture and mythological tradition of China.

Research on the Lacquered Channel Figurine Excavated from a Han Tomb in Tianhui

Abstract Apart from the seven medical treatises excavated from Laoguanshan Tomb M3, there were also medical artifacts: an iron mortar and pestle for medicine, remains of plants that seem to be medicine, and a tiny figurine decorated with red and white lacquered lines. In accordance with the Han period funerary practice of “serving the dead as serving the living” (shi si ru shi sheng 事死如事生), these funerary medical artifacts are likely related to the profession and daily life of the tomb’s occupier, in this case, very probably a medical official. This article introduces the lacquer figurine and the “channels” (jingmai 經脈) it illustrates in relation to roughly contemporaneous textual accounts of similar channels that have been excavated from tombs that were sealed in the Western Han (202 BCE–9 CE) period, as well as to accounts in the medical classics that were passed down and printed over one thousand years later than the date of the Laoguanshan tomb.

Bian Que’s Twelve Channels?

Abstract The name Bian Que, like that of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), has reverberated through the development of Chinese medicine since the time of the Warring States. The discovery of a human figurine showing channels and strategic points, together with a number of medical texts, during the excavation of the Laoguanshan Han tomb in Chengdu, Sichuan, in 2012–13 has reignited controversies about whether it is correct to speak of a specific Bian Que school, or whether, as this paper argues, these texts were written by the Han physicians who used Bian Que as a mouthpiece to record their own medical expositions. The paper begins by examining the main characteristics of the Laoguanshan human figurine and discusses what this excavated artifact reveals about the early history of Chinese medicine. It questions the existence of the so-called Bian Que school and, obliquely, the suggested relationships between the school and the figurine and between the school and medical texts found in the same tomb. The paper shows how diverse the disjointed knowledge of medicine was and that the idea of a “school” does not accurately reflect what was happening in the transmission of medical knowledge during the Warring States, Qin, and Han periods (475 BCE–220 CE).

A Brief Introduction to the Horse Medical Manuscript from the Tianhui Laoguanshan Han Tomb

Abstract One of the most important archaeological finds excavated from the Tianhui Laoguanshan Han tombs in 2012–13 was a manuscript on horse medicine, dated around the third century BCE. Prior to the discovery of this highly specialized veterinary text, only a handful of horse recipes from the Qin and Han periods had been found, and a sixth-century CE agricultural treatise, Essential Techniques for the Common People, was generally regarded as the earliest surviving source of extensive veterinary material, including various medical treatments for horses. Although the Laoguanshan manuscript – given the modern title Book of Treating Horses by the Team for Collating the Medical Bamboo Slips Excavated from the Han Tombs in Tianhui Town, Chengdu – has suffered significant damage, it nevertheless gives us an insight into the knowledge and treatments for horses during the Qin and early Han periods. A variety of ways of treating horses are recorded in Treating Horses, including herbal remedies, piercing, cauterization, hot packs, bandages, massage, and bathing. The use of gold needles is also mentioned in this text, echoing the gold and silver sewing needles excavated from Liu Sheng’s (d. 113 BCE) tomb in Mancheng, Hebei Province. This paper offers a short introduction to this valuable text on horse medicine by examining the content of its fragments, including names of ailments, symptoms of certain diseases, etiologies, and treatment methods. The discovery of Treating Horses challenges the established view that horse treatment methods in ancient China were predominantly herbal and that techniques of bleeding and cauterization recorded in Essential Techniques were brought to China from elsewhere, together with the introduction of Buddhism. The paper argues that the “foreign influence” had already occurred at a much earlier date, in the form of interactions with nomadic tribes such as the Scythians, the horsemen par excellence of classical antiquity.

Archaeometric study of the iron objects from the Xuechi sacrificial site and its implication for bloomery iron smelting during early Western Han period in China

AbstractMetallographic examination and compositional study of slag inclusions on iron objects unearthed from Xuechi in Shaanxi, China, have revealed the smelting and manufacturing techniques employed at this Western Han dynasty sacrificial site. The results suggest two production systems among the samples: all knives, nails, and farming implements were made from cast iron that had been decarburised/malleablised through annealing or fining process. It is proposed that these samples were produced in designated state‐owned workshop. Two horse‐bit sets, on the other hand, were forged into shape using both bloomery iron and fined iron from various sources, with possible repairing and recycling involved in the manufacturing process. It is therefore argued that the horse bits found in the site came with the horse and had been produced separately from the other iron objects. Furthermore, this paper argues that although cast iron‐based production was the main method for large‐scale iron production, small‐scale bloomery iron smelting may have been practiced during the Western Han dynasty in certain regions as an alternate but economically viable method.

Some Aspects of Food Supplies for the Northwestern Commanderies of the Han Empire (based on Hanjian bamboo slips)

The investigation examines the local daily administrative documentation — bamboo slips (Hanjian), found in large quantities at the excavations along the Great Silk Road, namely belonging to the Western Han period (206 BC — 9 AD). The considered Hanjian bamboo slips, which represent some aspects of food supplies in the north-west of the Han Empire, come mainly from the excavations in the Dunhuang area. For comparative analysis, the investigation used the legislative acts of the national and commandery levels on the maintenance of storage facilities and rules for guest meals at postal stations, which allowed us to trace how different laws in this area were being put into practice. It was determined that the amount of rations could not correspond to the indicators established by law. Most likely, the laws allowed to have some variability, and the parameters stated in the laws determined only the maximum possible ration, but not the minimum. It means that offi cials could show some fl exibility in applying legal guidelines to food distribution.

Regional characteristics of iron manufacturing techniques and the related issue of the supply system on Han’s southern Frontiers: A metallurgical study of iron implements from Chenzhou, Hunan

Southern Hunan is known to be one of the few iron manufacturing regions in the Han period. The study of iron implements from this region should yield important evidence concerning the regional iron-making techniques used and the local iron industry. We provide a detailed account of the technological aspects of iron implements yielded from Chenzhou, a major node on the traffic routes entering the broader southern frontiers. Our analysis focuses on the metallographic features and chemical compositions of inclusions in the examined objects. The results reveal that cast iron and related annealing or decarburization techniques were commonly used. Most implements were made using solid-state decarburization of cast iron, along with malleable cast iron and fined iron. This technological profile is similar to other case studies in the literature, but also highlights regional characteristics such as the relatively sparse presence of fined iron. Based on this observation, we discuss various factors that could have contributed to this situation. In a broader context, the analysis of this collection can contribute to the further investigation of the regional characteristics of the Han period iron industry.

Leaking Rulers and Confidential Officials: Secrecy and Status in Early Chinese Political Culture

AbstractThis article traces the spread of a norm of confidentiality within elite political culture during the Warring States, Qin, and Western Han periods. Instead of an emphasis on secrecy within military and administrative contexts, it explores discussions of “leaking” (xie 泄/洩 or lou 漏) and characterizations of “confidentiality” (zhou 周 and mi 密) in idealized representations of political action. While Warring States texts drew upon a medical language of qi circulation to fashion a model of a perfectly leakproof ruler, by Western Han attention had shifted from rulers to officials. This valorization of official confidentiality was connected to institutional developments, especially proscriptions against leaking from privileged spaces at the imperial court, visible in sources from the late Western Han. In this final period there arose a celebrated norm of circumspection, shared by rulers and officials alike, that in theory would allow all parties to evade disaster.

Exploration of the Mountain Sacrificial System in the Han Dynasty

Natural worship is a unique spiritual activity of human civilization that has existed since ancient times, arising from the awe-inspiring feeling that humans have towards mountains, rivers, and all things in nature. The mountain sacrifice system is a ritual practice that developed from the spiritual development of natural worship. Since the mythological era, the worship of natural phenomena and objects has existed, and Confucianism incorporated the ethics of nature into its doctrine, including mountains and rivers in its philosophical concept of Earth. During the Han Dynasty, rulers reorganized and reformed the mountain sacrifice system and formed the core ritual of the Taishan Mountain sacrifice. The various functions of the Han Dynasty mountain sacrifice ceremony reveal social customs during the Western Han period and Confucian related rituals. The changes in the mountain sacrifice policy during the Han Dynasty reflect the political strategies of rulers and the connection between Confucianism and its rituals. This article analyzes the changes in the Han Dynasty mountain sacrifice system and the basic situation of Han people's worship and beliefs through close reading of texts. It aims to demonstrate the peculiarities of the Han Dynasty mountain sacrifice system and its connection with Confucianism and its rituals.

『사기』로 본 고대의 요동

The location of the Liaodong (遼東) in ancient China was different from that of today. The Liaodong at the time was a major indicator of the western boundary of Old Joseon (古朝鮮), the first Korean nation. According to literature including Sagi (史記), Liaodong in ancient was a place name first used to point to the Far East of China. However, over time, it has also apply to name of the administrative district and princely states in China. Example of the former both includes Liadong-gun (遼東郡), an administrative district established after the Yan (燕) defeated Dongho (東胡) and Old Joseon, built their Great Wall, and is Liaodong-gun, an administrative district established during the Qin (秦) and Western Han (西漢) period. Example of the latter was Liaodong-guk (遼東國), an princely states established by dividing the land of the former Yan in the early Han Dynasty.
 The Liaodong before invasion Dongho and Old Joseon by Jingae (秦蓋) (approximately BC 300) seem to have pointed to outside the eastern border of the Yan, that is, the area between the Chisu (治水) River (currently Yeongjeongha 永定河) and the Gosu 沽水) River (currently Jobaekha 潮白河). After the invasion of Jingae, it went beyond the region and pointed to the east part of Yusu (濡水) River (currently Nanha 灤河). The Liaodong-gun which was established during the Jingae period, the Liaodong-gun which was established during the Qin Dynasty, and Liaodong-guk which was established during the Western Han were geographically overlapped on the same region. Therefore, we argue that the Liaodong from the ancient Yan to the Western Han period was a region limited to the east part of the lower stream of Yusu (濡水) River (currently Nanha 灤河).

Chemical investigation of herbal wine from Jin Yang ancient city site during the late Western Han period in China

AbstractIn China, liquid residue was mostly found in sealed bronze vessels associated with alcohol drinks, which are supposed to conserve the complete composition of the beverage, including the additives. So far, most of them have not been sufficiently scientifically verified. In this study, the liquid residue in bronze jars from the late Western Han period in the burial area of Jin Yang ancient city site was investigated by GC/MS, LC–MS/MS, SEM and Raman spectroscopy. These sensitive versatile techniques had unintended consequences in addition to confirming the presence of fermentation products (monosaccharides, alditols, glycerol‐related substances and organic acids). The enrichment of oxalic acid, VLCFA (very‐long‐chain fatty acid), and alkaloids hints that multiple plants were involved in the beverage preparation. The quinazoline alkaloid products from the sediments reveal an important Rutaceae ingredient, which relates to multiple ancient spices and Chinese herbs. Therefore, the liquid residues from Jin Yang ancient city site imply that they are the earliest known herbal wine remains in East Asia to this day.

Modeling Peace: Royal Tombs and Political Ideology in Early China by Jie Shi (review)

Reviewed by: Modeling Peace: Royal Tombs and Political Ideology in Early China by Jie Shi Armin Selbitschka Jie Shi, Modeling Peace: Royal Tombs and Political Ideology in Early China. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020. ix, 358 pp. US$60 (hb). ISBN 978-0-231-19102-9 Jie Shi (or Shi Jie 施傑 in the Chinese reading) has been a prominent and prolific scholar in the fields of Early China and Early Medieval China studies ever since he published the first of numerous articles in 2012.1 The book under review (hereafter Modeling Peace) is his first monograph and it is the first title from the recently established Tang Center Series in Early China at Columbia University. Modeling Peace seeks to unravel the social and political significance of royal burials during the Western Han period (206 BCE–9 CE). The author asserts that although "tombs were associated with the afterlife, it is more important to realize that the purpose of a tomb varied with the tomb occupant's status" (p. 10). In other words, a royal tomb can never be just a tomb; it is always also a political statement. Modeling Peace's introduction indicates that the book takes the author's doctoral dissertation as its template in as much as it presents an in-depth analysis of Tombs No. 1 and 2 at Mancheng 滿城 in Hebei province.2 These two multi-chambered structures were hewn into the face of a mountain almost as mirror images right next to each other, and once housed the remains of Liu Sheng 劉勝, King Jing 靖 of Zhongshan 中山 (r. 154–113 BCE; Tomb No. 1), and his queen Dou Wan 竇綰 (Tomb No. 2). Their bodies have long since decayed, but their tombs and burial goods have largely survived. Due to the immense labor necessary to build such elaborate rock-cut tombs in addition to the extraordinary quality and quantity of finds they have yielded, the author counts them "among the most important material remains of Early Chinese civilization" (p. 1). Moreover, he argues that they "set the highest standards for the lower classes" and can thus be properly understood only if they are distinguished from "lesser tombs" (p. 1). Yet, scholarship, so far, has mainly viewed such tombs as structures that either were intended to guarantee the personal welfare of the deceased in the afterlife, or to facilitate their immortality. Past discussions have failed to realize that differences in size and quality were imbued with deeper meanings. Since Western Han kings wielded actual power over people, their tombs needed to reflect the political and social importance of their occupants as well as fulfill their religious needs. In Liu Sheng's particular case, the goal was to present him and his wife [End Page 166] as virtuous and well-adjusted rulers of the newly established Zhongshan kingdom in an area whose cultural traditions still differed considerably from those of the Central Plains. Chapter 1 traces the trajectory of the development of early imperial Chinese tombs from vertical shaft pits to horizontal multi-chambered structures. Shi contends that the spatial arrangement of personal attire and burial goods in both Mancheng tombs symbolizes the postmortem transformation of Liu Sheng and Dou Wan from human beings with bodies into spirits without physical form. For instance, jade suits (yuyi 玉衣) for both occupants and additional sets of clothing that were deposited in and around the coffins of both deceased represent the bodies and souls of the deceased. The latter, in turn, were sustained in perpetuity in order "to secure a postmortem immortality" (p. 60) not only by materials with close links to immortality such as jade, but also by the intentional placement of food and drink throughout various chambers of both tombs. The respective containers and their edible contents symbolize kitchens, banquets, and sacrifices that were catering to the souls of the occupants.3 Shi strongly emphasizes that the desire for the longevity of Western Han rulers in this life and the next was not, however, rooted in personal vanity, but rather in a sense of responsibility. After all, the stability of the world depended on the fact that virtuous regents were around long enough to guide their realms. Chapter...

Water in the Mencius: Correlative Reasoning, Conceptual Metaphor, and/or Sacred Performative Narrative?

The way the water metaphor is mobilized in Mencius 6A.2 has been interpreted and assessed from a number of perspectives. While several commentators find the analogy developed by Mencius comparing water and human nature intrinsically weak, others see it as partially effective in its use of analogical reasoning or of conceptual metaphors, especially when related to a yin-yang-based cosmology. This contribution develops an alternative perspective: it locates this metaphor in the corpus of references to water found first in the Mencius and second in the works of Chinese antiquity until the early Han period. This survey allows us to highlight three important features: (a) a quasi-sacred status is attached to the aquatic element; (b) water’s characteristics are developed according to a narrative model, causing the reader to circulate from one level of reality to another, such that the communication between the heart–mind and Heaven opens up; and (c) finally, as they mobilize a sense of contemplation and wonder, water narratives are meant to be transformative of the disciple’s consciousness and behavior.

GIS‐enabled historiography to determine travel routes during the Western Han period via agent‐based models and least‐cost path analysis

AbstractGIS‐enabled historiography allows us to shed light on missing or poorly understood aspects of historical events. Here, we use agent‐based models (ABMs), least cost path analysis (LCPA), and space–time paths to recreate and evaluate possible modes and routes of travel undertaken by Shi Rao, a Western Han official. A diary was found in Shi Rao's tomb that includes information about his travels over 1 year (11 BCE), including start and end times of his journeys. But it leaves out details regarding modes of transport or exact routes. Using Tan Qixiang's historical atlas, we digitized river networks and utilized modern topographic data to digitally recreate the landscape as it was during Shi Rao's travels. This was then used to evaluate possible journeys via rivers (using ABMs) and roads (using LCPA), and compared to historical speed of boats, carts and horses, with findings indicating that horseback may have been the viable option.

Food production and agricultural systems on the southwestern frontier of the Han Empire: archaeobotanical remains from the 2016 excavation of Hebosuo, Yunnan

Dian Basin in Yunnan province is an important center for both early agricultural production and centralized state formation. Settled agricultural villages are present in the province since at least the third millennium BC, and by the first millennium BC, the Dian Culture, a highly specialized bronze polity, flourished in the Dian Basin and surrounding area, until it was conquered by the Han in 109 BC. The increased deployment of flotation at recent archaeological excavations in Yunnan allowed the reconstruction of agricultural practices from the Neolithic to the early Bronze Age, documented at Baiyangcun, Haimenkou, and Xueshan among others. However, archaeobotanical evidence relating to the pivotal period right before and after the Han conquest have so far been lacking, with only limited written records about agricultural production in the Shiji by Sima Qian. Here we present for the first time direct archaeobotanical evidence relating to this transitional period as revealed by rich Han period deposits found during the 2016 excavation of Hebosuo, the largest Dian settlement investigated in Yunnan so far, dated by direct AMS on charred cereal grains and artefactual evidence as spanning from between 850 BC–220 AD. Following the Han conquest, the main components of the agricultural system did not undergo radical changes, but the weedy flora indicates a heavier reliance of wet-land rice systems, evidencing a higher level of water management or even irrigation practices, and the consequent intensification of the agricultural production. These findings on shifting agricultural regimes in Yunnan also contribute to current debates about the interplay between intensification, food risk, and ecology in times of political instability.

중국어교육에 있어서 古典 교육의 범위 고찰

It is just difficult to know what to learn in order to understand the classic phrases that often appear in modern Chinese. This paper intensively analyzed the classic sentences frequently quoted by Chinese leaders and looked at the citation situation by writers of each era, literature, and genre. As can be seen from the survey results, it can be seen that the citation rate of documents from the pre-Qin period and the Han period was the highest in terms of time. We should prioritize education and learning about the scripture. Among the literatures from the Tang and Song Dynasty, poetry and prose are cited the most, so a certain amount of study on these works is required.