Hair Curling Research Articles

Characterization of Root Hair Curling and Nodule Development in Soybean-Rhizobia Symbiosis.

Soybean plants form symbiotic nitrogen-fixing nodules with specific rhizobia bacteria. The root hair is the initial infection site for the symbiotic process before the nodules. Since roots and nodules grow in soil and are hard to perceive, little knowledge is available on the process of soybean root hair deformation and nodule development over time. In this study, adaptive microrhizotrons were used to observe root hairs and to investigate detailed root hair deformation and nodule formation subjected to different rhizobia densities. The result showed that the root hair curling angle increased with the increase of rhizobia density. The largest curling angle reached 268° on the 8th day after inoculation. Root hairs were not always straight, even in the uninfected group with a relatively small angle (<45°). The nodule is an organ developed after root hair curling. It was inoculated from curling root hairs and swelled in the root axis on the 15th day after inoculation, with the color changing from light (15th day) to a little dark brown (35th day). There was an error between observing the diameter and the real diameter; thus, a diameter over 1 mm was converted to the real diameter according to the relationship between the perceived diameter and the real diameter. The diameter of the nodule reached 5 mm on the 45th day. Nodule number and curling number were strongly related to rhizobia density with a correlation coefficient of determination of 0.92 and 0.93, respectively. Thus, root hair curling development could be quantified, and nodule number could be estimated through derived formulation.

Taxonomy for the assessment of the subjective experience of curly hair manageability.

This paper aims to develop and validate a taxonomy for the assessment of the subjective experience of curly hair manageability. It represents the latter of two iterative stages of a mixed-method design interdisciplinary project. The qualitative stage of the study incorporated thematic analysis of 14 interview transcripts generated using a video-ethnographic method (SEBE). A survey-based instrument assessing different elements of the construct of hair manageability designed during the first stage of this project was further developed following consultations with experts with extensive experience in hair research, product development, testing and trichology. The instrument was tested online with 506 female participants self-reporting natural curly hair, types 3A and higher according to the Andre Walker Curl Classification. The initial construct of four groups of hair goals received positive content validity from the experts. High scale reliability was achieved for the aesthetic, haptic and emotive goals' scales as well as for hair esteem (Cronbach's alpha >0.75). Curl type was the only personal hair attribute that was correlated with hair goals and perceptions. From the demographic and lifestyle data, only age was correlated with goals and willingness to try new products. Common hair practices and product usage were also correlated with hair curl and goals. The appropriateness of the instrument for measuring the strength of different hair goals and perceptions relevant to hair curvature degree and hair esteem has been validated. The instrument will support the development and testing of products better aligned with the manageability needs of very curly and textured hair. It was also confirmed that hair curvature is the most significant determinant of practices, and age of product attitudes.

Humidity‐Responsive Polyvinyl Alcohol/Microcrystalline Cellulose Composites with Shape Memory Features for Hair‐Styling Applications

AbstractThis study investigates the maintenance of humidity‐responsive shape memory polymer composites comprising polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and cellulose microcrystal for maintaining hair curls in humid environments. The composite films are prepared by a simple blending method using aqueous solutions of different polymer ratios and characterized for thermal properties, chemical structure, and surface morphology. The hydroxyl groups in the PVA and cellulose provided hydrogen‐bonding interactions and improved the miscibility of the composites. Increasing the cellulose content in the composites enhanced mechanical properties and curl‐shape recovery performance, with 20–25 wt.% cellulose achieving maximum recovery. When the PVA/cellulose solution is applied to natural hair, it effectively maintains the shape of curled hair bundles for at least 6 h under 80% humidity and promotes the hair shape recovery rate to 8–10%. Overall, The proposed humidity‐responsive PVA/cellulose composites present promising application potential in the field of hairstyling to withstand humid weather.

Pediatric Facial Burns and Consumer Products: A Nationwide Analysis.

Pediatric facial burns pose significant challenges in terms of physical, psychological, and social impacts on children. Understanding the causes of these burns is crucial for prevention and appropriate care. This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of causes and preventive measures related to pediatric facial burns caused by consumer products. Using data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) from 2012 to 2021, we analyzed 130,461 cases of pediatric facial burns. Common causes included household items such as cleaning supplies, hot water, kitchen appliances, and health and beauty products. Differences in burn causes were observed between genders, with boys more prone to burns from welding equipment, gasoline, and grills, while girls were more susceptible to burns from hair curling equipment, candles, and health and beauty products. The mean age of children burned by different items varied, highlighting the need for age-appropriate preventive measures. The authors discuss the importance of caregiver education, safe storage practices, supervision, and clear communication in preventing pediatric facial burns. By raising awareness of potential burn sources and implementing preventive strategies, the incidence of pediatric facial burns can be significantly reduced.

Reimagining Hair Science: A New Approach to Classify Curly Hair Phenotypes via New Quantitative Geometric and Structural Mechanical Parameters.

Hair is a natural polymeric composite primarily composed of tight macrobundles of keratin proteins, which are highly responsive to external stimuli, similarly to the hydrogels and other natural fibrous gel systems like collagen and fibrin.Hair and its appearance play a significant role in human society. As a highly complex biocomposite system, it has been traditionally challenging to characterize and thus develop personal care products. Over the last few decades, a significant societal paradigm shift occurred among those with curly hair, accepting the natural morphological shape of their curls and styling their hair according to its innate, distinct, and unique material properties, which has given rise to the development of new hair classification systems, beyond the traditional and highly limited race-based distinction (Caucasian, Mongolian, and African). L'Oréal developed a hair typing taxonomy based on quantitative geometric parameters among the four key patterns─straight, wavy, curly, and kinky, but it fails to capture the complex diversity of curly and kinky hair. Acclaimed celebrity hair stylist Andre Walker developed a classification system that is the existing gold standard for classifying curly and kinky hair, but it relies upon qualitative classification measures, making the system vague and ambiguous of phenotypic differences. The goal of this research is to use quantitative methods to identify new geometric parameters more representative of curly and kinky hair curl patterns, therefore providing more information on the kinds of personal care products that will resonate best with them and thus maximize desired appearance and health, and to correlate these new parameters with its mechanical properties. This was accomplished by identifying new geometric and mechanical parameters from several types of human hair samples.Geometric properties were measured using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), photogrammetry, and optical microscopy. Mechanical properties were measured under tensile extension using a texture analyzer (TA) and a dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA), which bears similarity to the common act of brushing or combing. Both instruments measure force as a function of applied displacement, thus allowing the relationship between stress and applied stretch ratio to be measured as a hair strand uncurls and stretches to the point of fracture. From the resulting data, correlations were made between fiber geometry and mechanical performance. This data will be used to draw more conclusions on the contribution that fiber morphology has on hair fiber mechanics and will promote cultural inclusion among researchers and consumers possessing curly and kinky hair.

Mechanism of Hair Curling via Laccase-Assisted Tyrosine Grafting Using BSA as a Model Protein

ABSTRACT Commercial hair perming uses strong reducing agents and harms hair fiber’s quality even human health. In this study, tyrosine is adopted as a cross-linking agent between thiols and/or amines as the shape-changing of hair involves the breakage of disulfide bonds and the rearrangement of new bonds between keratin molecules. To investigate the mechanism of keratin cross-linking, bovine serum albumin (BSA) is used as a model protein. Disulfide bonds in BSA are successfully reduced by L-cysteine to provide free thiols. Four new cross-linked peptides are formed inter- or intra-BSA monomers, indicating that tyrosine can be adopted as a cross-linking agent not only between amines but also between thiols. Moreover, curling of Asian hair is conducted using tyrosine as a perming agent by the laccase-assisted reaction. The optimized operational conditions are hair with L-cysteine pre-treatment (50.0 mM) followed by laccase-assisted grafting with 3.0 mM tyrosine. The reshaped hair performed a better perming performance than commercial perming product before washing, although a lower perming efficiency after washing. The curling process could be accomplished without strength loss of hair fibers and with a blow-drier easily. Hence, this new methodology may lead to the development of a gentle and user-friendly approach in the hair care industry.

Identification and Characterization of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Non-Nodulating Mutants Altered in Rhizobial Infection.

The symbiotic N2-fixation process in the legume-rhizobia interaction is relevant for sustainable agriculture. The characterization of symbiotic mutants, mainly in model legumes, has been instrumental for the discovery of symbiotic genes, but similar studies in crop legumes are scant. To isolate and characterize common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) symbiotic mutants, an ethyl methanesulphonate-induced mutant population from the BAT 93 genotype was analyzed. Our initial screening of Rhizobium etli CE3-inoculated mutant plants revealed different alterations in nodulation. We proceeded with the characterization of three non-nodulating (nnod), apparently monogenic/recessive mutants: nnod(1895), nnod(2353) and nnod(2114). Their reduced growth in a symbiotic condition was restored when the nitrate was added. A similar nnod phenotype was observed upon inoculation with other efficient rhizobia species. A microscopic analysis revealed a different impairment for each mutant in an early symbiotic step. nnod(1895) formed decreased root hair curling but had increased non-effective root hair deformation and no rhizobia infection. nnod(2353) produced normal root hair curling and rhizobia entrapment to form infection chambers, but the development of the latter was blocked. nnod(2114) formed infection threads that did not elongate and thus did not reach the root cortex level; it occasionally formed non-infected pseudo-nodules. The current research is aimed at mapping the responsible mutated gene for a better understanding of SNF in this critical food crop.

Cosmetics Science

Cosmetics are substances that want to reinforce the appearance or odour of the human body. The word cosmetics derives from the Greek word which suggests the technique of dress &amp; ornament Women need to colour their cheeks in colour by first coating their face, neck, and other spare a white powder without knowing that white powder contained lead that destroys their complexion after a certain period. Modern cosmetics include skin-care preparations; foundation, powder, and rouge (blusher); eye makeup; lipstick; shampoo; hair curling and straightening preparation; colours dyes, and bleaches; and nail enamel. Related products include antiperspirants, mouthwashes, depilatories, astringents, bath crystals, and much of other types of products.

GmTOC1b inhibits nodulation by repressing GmNIN2a and GmENOD40-1 in soybean.

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is an important factor affecting the yield and quality of leguminous crops. Nodulation is regulated by a complex network comprising several transcription factors. Here, we functionally characterized the role of a TOC1 family member, GmTOC1b, in soybean (Glycine max) nodulation. RT-qPCR assays showed that GmTOC1b is constitutively expressed in soybean. However, GmTOC1b was also highly expressed in nodules, and GmTOC1 localized to the cell nucleus, based on transient transformation in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. Homozygous Gmtoc1b mutant plants exhibited increased root hair curling and produced more infection threads, resulting in more nodules and greater nodule fresh weight. By contrast, GmTOC1b overexpression inhibited nodulation. Furthermore, we also showed that GmTOC1b represses the expression of nodulation-related genes including GmNIN2a and GmENOD40-1 by binding to their promoters. We conclude that GmTOC1b functions as a transcriptional repressor to inhibit nodulation by repressing the expression of key nodulation-related genes including GmNIN2a, GmNIN2b, and GmENOD40-1 in soybean.

ANCIENT COIN FROM TARASOVA HORA SETTLEMENT NEAR ZHABOTIN

Тhe paper is devoted to the first find of ancient coin on the territory of the Tarasova Hora settlement near Zhabotin village of the Cherkasy district. It is the coin of Olbia city — the obol «borisphen». It was minted in 300—280 BC. Such coin was already found in a complex of things from the Early Iron Age of the 5th—4th centuries BC. That is the evidence of existence here of some sight of this period. The Finding of such coins proves the presence of cultural and trade-economic relations of the local indigenous population with the ci­ties of North-Western Pontic region and Olbia in particular.&#x0D; On the reverse of the coin the inscription of OLBIO is visible as well as the images of gorytos and axe. On Avers you can disassemble the fuzzy image of the hair curl. The coin is rectangulare, with dimensions of 1.8 × 1.4 cm. Mass 2.36 gr. The surface is covered with green oxide and has traces of scales from staying in the fire. Thus, since the coin has no difference it can be dated to the 300—280 BC.&#x0D; Such coins are not rare, and their findings are known in the large territory from the Crimea to the Middle Dnieper. Also two similar coins were accidentally found in this region on the banks of Tyasmin River near the Raygorod village of Cherkasy district. These are the bronze coins minted by Olbia in 300—280 BC, however, according to numismatics opinion, were in circulation until 230 BC, during the first half of the 3rd century BC. These coins, called by the researchers «Borisphens», depicting on the avers of the bearded Scythian deity of the Dnieper River (Borisphenes), were the only bronze coins produced in the Northern Pontic region and have got a wide spread outside Olbia, practically impossible for coins of non-cost metals.

Seize the day.

Auburn hair curls over his forehead; freckles scatter across his cheeks beneath denim-blue eyes. His work boots have left clumps of mud on the floor. As he perches on the stool, his left arm rests over the exam table. He’s already peeled off the bandage, revealing a healing laceration across his

Combing a double helix.

Combing hair involves brushing away the topological tangles in a collective curl, defined as a bundle of interacting elastic filaments. Using a combination of experiment and computation, we study this problem that naturally links topology, geometry and mechanics. Observations show that the dominant interactions in hair are those of a two-body nature, corresponding to a braided homochiral double helix. This minimal model allows us to study the detangling of an elastic double helix driven by a single stiff tine that moves along it and leaves two untangled filaments in its wake. Our results quantify how the mechanics of detangling correlates with the dynamics of a topological quantity, the link density, that propagates ahead of the tine and flows out the free end as a link current. This in turn provides a measure of the maximum characteristic length of a single combing stroke in the many-body problem on a head of hair, producing an optimal combing strategy that balances trade-offs between comfort, efficiency and speed of combing in hair curls of varying geometrical and topological complexity.

WNT10A, dermatology and dentistry.

WNTs (Wingless-related integration sites) are secreted glycoproteins that are involved in signalling pathways critical to organ development and tissue regeneration. Of the 19 known WNT ligands, one member of this family, WNT10A, appears to have specific relevance to skin, its appendages and teeth. This review focuses on how variants in the WNT10A gene have been associated with various ectodermal disorders and how such changes may have clinical relevance to dermatologists and dentists. Germline mutations in WNT10A underlie several forms of autosomal recessive ectodermal dysplasia in which heterozygous carriers may also display some lesser ectodermal anomalies. Within the general population, multiple heterozygous variants in WNT10A can cause skin, hair, sweat gland or dental alterations, also known as ectodermal derivative impairments. WNT10A variants have also been implicated in hair thickness, male androgenetic alopecia, hair curl, acne vulgaris, lipodystrophy, keloids, wound healing, tooth size, tooth agenesis, hypodontia, taurodontism and oral clefting. Beyond dermatology and dentistry, WNT10A abnormalities have also been identified in kidney fibrosis, keratoconus, certain malignancies (particularly gastrointestinal) and neuropathic pain pathways. In this review, we detail how WNT10A is implicated as a key physiological and pathological contributor to syndromic and nonsyndromic disorders, as well as population variants, affecting the skin and teeth, and document all reported mutations in WNT10A with genotype-phenotype correlation.

Antioxidant extracts from Dicerocaryum senecioides as active ingredients in semi-permanents and hair conditioners.

Different hair types respond differently to cosmetic treatments; hence, many options ought to be availed to the consumer. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of antioxidant extract from Dicerocaryum senecioides as active alternatives in hair semi-permanent waving and hair conditioning. The antioxidant phytochemicals were first identified and isolated by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and spraying with revealing agents. The antioxidant potency was determined by DPPH antiradical scavenging and ferric reducing power methods. The extract was incorporated in two different formulations to make the extract perm (bio-semi-permanent) and the antioxidant hair conditioner (AC). The formulations had their performance examined for hair curling and conditioning on Asian and African hair types. Hair damage was assessed by scanning the surface of treated samples on an attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (ATR-FTIR) and by quantifying lost protein on ultraviolet visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer. The extract antioxidant had an IC50 of 26.54±0.34µg/ml exhibiting greater antioxidant potency compared to the controls quercetin (38.84±0.12µg/ml) and ascorbic acid (35.22±0.07µg/ml). The extract perm had a lower curling ability indicated by a perm set of 85.10±3.92% and 81.35±2.35% for Asian and African hairs, respectively, while commercial product, ammonium thioglycolate (ATG) had 96.05±1.70% and 93.60±2.21% for the same. The curling of hair with extract perm resulted in less oxidative damage with oxidative peak areas of 3.37±0.09 and 3.71±0.03 as well as lower protein losses of 4.72±0.71µg/mg and 5.62±0.70µg/mg on Asian and African hair samples, respectively. The application of AC reduced the oxidative damage peak areas of ATG and extract perm treated Asian hair samples by 1.15 and 0.48 units, respectively. AC was also effective in reducing damage caused by UV radiation on ATG-treated samples by 1.06 units (African hair) and 1.09 units on Asian hair. The results show antioxidant extracts from Dicerocryum senecioides as a promising and safer alternative for hair conditioning and semi-permanent curling.

Microrna Regulation of Nodule Zone-Specific Gene Expression In Soybean

Microrna Regulation of Nodule Zone-Specific Gene Expression In Soybean

Does hair curl variation influence the efficacy of scalp cooling in the prevention of chemotherapy-induced alopecia in breast cancer patients? A randomised pilot trial

Background: Scalp cooling is reported to reduce Chemotherapy-induced alopecia (CIA).Aim: To compare the efficacy of scalp cooling for straight versus curly hair in a pilot trail.Setting: A radiation oncology breast cancel clinic.Methods: This 20-month randomised controlled trial recruited females (18–65 years) to receive chemotherapy (Adriamycin or Epirubicin and Cyclophosphamide followed by Paclitaxel) with or without scalp cooling. Outcomes were percentage alopecia (Severity ALopecia Tool) by hair curvature and treatment retention.Results: Forty eight patients (24 per group) were randomised; four in each group withdrew before first study visit and photographs of three in the cooling group could not be found for assessment. Thus 77% constituted the intention-to-treat population (17 cooling vs. 20 control). Agreement on alopecia severity was good overall (intra-class correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.94; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.85–0.97) and at six of seven time points. Overall, cooling significantly reduced CIA, relative to no-cooling (58.15 ± 28.46 vs. 37.29 ± 20.52; p = 0.0167); however, percentage alopecia was cosmetically significant. There was no difference in CIA between cooling participants with straight (n = 8) versus curly hair (n = 9), (p = 0.0740).The number of patients completing the various cycles of chemotherapy declined from 77.1% at cycle 1 to 18.8% at cycle 7 for the whole study, and from 100% each to 17.6% and 30.0% for cooling and control groups, respectively (p = 0.451).Conclusion: This study suggests that hair curvature has no significant impact on the efficacy of scalp cooling to reduce CIA, however, this requires confirmation.

Long hair follicular unit excision: personal experience.

BackgroundLong hair follicular unit excision (FUE) is the most state‐of‐the‐art surgical technique in the field of hair transplantation surgery. Long hair FUE reduces the signs of surgery by camouflaging the recipient area with long hair, and allows hair curl identification when placing grafts. In addition, donor area shaving can be omitted.MethodsThis article presents the surgical approach and methods of long hair FUE. Patients were categorized by sex, age, recipient site, purpose of the surgery, and history of previous hair transplantation. Medical charts and photographs were reviewed to obtain the transection rate and calculated density for each patient.ResultsLong hair FUE was applied to 134 patients (112 women and 22 men). Thirty‐four patients received eyebrow hair transplantation, 73 underwent female hairline correction surgery, nine patients underwent sideburn reconstruction, two were treated for female pattern hair loss, and 19 were treated for male pattern baldness (MPB). Four of the patients with MPB also underwent eyebrow transplant surgery. Of the patients with MPB, 17 (89%) had Norwood type III baldness, and two (11%) had type IV hair loss. The mean number of grafts required was 292 for eyebrow transplantation, 1,214 for female hairline correction, 251 for sideburn reconstruction, 1,344 for female pattern hair loss, and 1,567 for MPB. The mean follicle transection rate was 9.2%, and the mean calculated number of follicles per graft achieved was 2.23.ConclusionThis long hair FUE method introduced by the authors is an excellent surgical method when performed by surgeons with sufficient skill and expertise.

Proteins as Hair Styling Agents

The perming of hair is a common styling procedure with negative impact on the overall properties of the hair fibers. Usually, this process uses harsh chemicals to promote the disruption of disulfide bonds and the formation of new bonds to change the shape of hair. Here, we explored bovine serum albumin (BSA), silk fibroin (SF), keratin and two fusion recombinant proteins (KP-UM and KP-Cryst) as new perming agents. A phosphate buffer prepared at different pH values (5, 7 and 9) was used to apply the proteins to virgin Asian hair, and a hot BaByliss was used to curl the hair fibers. To assess the potential of the protein formulations for hair styling, the perming efficiency and the perming resistance to wash were measured. Furthermore, the fiber water content was evaluated to assess if the proteins protected the hair during the styling process. Despite all of the proteins being able to assist in the curling of Asian hair, the best perming efficiency and perming resistance to wash results were observed for BSA and keratin. These proteins showed perming efficiency values close to that measured for a commercial perming product (chemical method), particularly at pH 5 and 9. The increase in the hair’s internal and external water contents revealed a protective effect provided by the proteins during the application of heat in the styling procedure. This study shows the potential of proteins to be used in the development of new eco-friendly hair styling products.

Formin-mediated bridging of cell wall, plasma membrane, and cytoskeleton in symbiotic infections of Medicago truncatula

SummaryLegumes have maintained the ability to associate with rhizobia to sustain the nitrogen-fixing root nodule symbiosis (RNS). In Medicago truncatula, the Nod factor (NF)-dependent intracellular root colonization by Sinorhizobium meliloti initiates from young, growing root hairs. They form rhizobial traps by physically curling around the symbiont.1,2 Although alterations in root hair morphology like branching and swelling have been observed in other plants in response to drug treatments3 or genetic perturbations,4, 5, 6 full root hair curling represents a rather specific invention in legumes. The entrapment of the symbiont completes with its full enclosure in a structure called the “infection chamber” (IC),1,2,7,8 from which a tube-like membrane channel, the “infection thread” (IT), initiates.1,2,9 All steps of rhizobium-induced root hair alterations are aided by a tip-localized cytosolic calcium gradient,10,11 global actin re-arrangements, and dense subapical fine actin bundles that are required for the delivery of Golgi-derived vesicles to the root hair tip.7,12, 13, 14 Altered actin dynamics during early responses to NFs or rhizobia have mostly been shown in mutants that are affected in the actin-related SCAR/WAVE complex.15, 16, 17, 18 Here, we identified a polarly localized SYMBIOTIC FORMIN 1 (SYFO1) to be required for NF-dependent alterations in membrane organization and symbiotic root hair responses. We demonstrate that SYFO1 mediates a continuum between the plasma membrane and the cell wall that is required for the onset of rhizobial infections.

NO Network for Plant-Microbe Communication Underground: A Review.

Mechanisms governing plant–microbe interaction in the rhizosphere attracted a lot of investigative attention in the last decade. The rhizosphere is not simply a source of nutrients and support for the plants; it is rather an ecosystem teeming with diverse flora and fauna including different groups of microbes that are useful as well as harmful for the plants. Plant–microbe interaction occurs via a highly complex communication network that involves sophisticated machinery for the recognition of friend and foe at both sides. On the other hand, nitric oxide (NO) is a key, signaling molecule involved in plant development and defense. Studies on legume–rhizobia symbiosis suggest the involvement of NO during recognition, root hair curling, development of infection threads, nodule development, and nodule senescence. A similar role of NO is also suggested in the case of plant interaction with the mycorrhizal fungi. Another, insight into the plant–microbe interaction in the rhizosphere comes from the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)/microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) by the host plant and thereby NO-mediated activation of the defense signaling cascade. Thus, NO plays a major role in mediating the communication between plants and microbes in the rhizosphere. Interestingly, reports suggesting the role of silicon in increasing the number of nodules, enhancing nitrogen fixation, and also the combined effect of silicon and NO may indicate a possibility of their interaction in mediating microbial communication underground. However, the exact role of NO in mediating plant–microbe interaction remains elusive. Therefore, understanding the role of NO in underground plant physiology is very important, especially in relation to the plant’s interaction with the rhizospheric microbiome. This will help devise new strategies for protection against phytopathogens and enhancing plant productivity by promoting symbiotic interaction. This review focuses on the role of NO in plant–microbe communication underground.