Assess Habitat Quality Research Articles

Recognition and management of ecological refugees: A case study of the Cape mountain zebra

Anthropogenic activities have led to long-term range contraction in many species, creating isolated populations in ecologically marginal and suboptimal habitats. ‘Refugee’ species have a current distribution completely restricted to suboptimal habitat. However, it is likely that many species are partial refugees, where one or more populations are managed in ecologically unsuitable habitat. Here, we develop a framework to assess potential refugee populations in marginal habitats using a model species: the Cape mountain zebra. We assessed habitat quality by the abundance and palatability of grass and diet quality using proximate nutrient and element analysis. High grass abundance was associated with higher population growth rates and zebra density and less skewed adult sex ratios. Furthermore, faecal nutrient and dietary element quality was also positively associated with grass abundance. Our results show that poorly performing populations were characterised by suboptimal habitat, supporting the hypothesis that the Cape mountain zebra has refugee populations. In addition, we found more variance in sex ratio and population growth rates in smaller populations suggesting they may be more at risk for random stochastic effects, such as a biased sex ratio, compounding poor performance. We show how the ‘refugee’ concept can be applied more generally when managing species with fragmented populations occurring across marginal habitats. More broadly, the results presented herein highlight the importance of recognizing the range of habitats historically occupied by a species when assessing ecological suitability. Identifying and mitigating against refugee, relict and gap populations is especially critical in the face of on-going environmental change.

Forbidden fruit: human settlement and abundant fruit create an ecological trap for an apex omnivore.

Habitat choice is an evolutionary product of animals experiencing increased fitness when preferentially occupying high-quality habitat. However, an ecological trap (ET) can occur when an animal is presented with novel conditions and the animal's assessment of habitat quality is poorly matched to its resulting fitness. We tested for an ET for grizzly (brown) bears using demographic and movement data collected in an area with rich food resources and concentrated human settlement. We derived measures of habitat attractiveness from occurrence models of bear food resources and estimated demographic parameters using DNA mark-recapture information collected over 8years (2006-2013). We then paired this information with grizzly bear mortality records to investigate kill and movement rates. Our results demonstrate that a valley high in both berry resources and human density was more attractive than surrounding areas, and bears occupying this region faced 17% lower apparent survival. Despite lower fitness, we detected a net flow of bears into the ET, which contributed to a study-wide population decline. This work highlights the presence and pervasiveness of an ET for an apex omnivore that lacks the evolutionary cues, under human-induced rapid ecological change, to assess trade-offs between food resources and human-caused mortality, which results in maladaptive habitat selection.

An index to evaluate the fluvial habitat degradation in lowland urban streams

The objective of the present article is to propose an index that allows the assessment of the fluvial habitat quality in lowland streams that run through urbanized areas, by the use of metrics related to the quality of the watercourse, the river banks, the riparian zone and the fluvial geomorphology. The metrics retained in the index (USHI, Urban Stream Habitat Index) include the cover percentage and quality of the aquatic vegetation; the main features of the river banks; the presence of exotic trees, of litter, of permanent structures (such as buildings) in the riparian zone and other major geomorphological alterations, such as dredging or channelization. The index is related to physical-chemical parameters that are linked to water quality, the imperviousness of the watershed and to other biotic descriptors, particularly the macroinvertebrate and diatom assemblages. The values of the index for the sites in the studied area revealed that 41.2% have a bad or very bad habitat quality, 27.8% a moderate habitat quality, while 31% have a good or very good habitat quality. The main issue detected in the studied sites involved the dredging or partial channelization of the reaches. Unlike other indices that evaluate the quality of the physical habitat through the use of the diatoms or macroinvertebrate communities, the USHI can be interpreted as a measure of the overall quality of the habitat, and uses indicators that do not require the identification of taxa, making it more accessible to non-specialists. Therefore it provides with a tool to evaluate the fluvial habitat quality of lowland streams that can be easily applied, particularly by professionals that take part in the management and decision making process regarding urbanized watersheds.

Oceanic and temperate rainforest climates and their epiphyte indicators in Britain

A biogeographic zone with high oceanicity is a well described feature of the European Atlantic region. This oceanic zone intersects with a zone of European temperate rainforest that has received increasing conservation recognition. Although having a degree of spatial overlap, the terminology applied to these different zones is not synonymous. Temperate rainforest is one example of an oceanic system, alongside others such as blanket bog or liverwort heath. Conversely, oceanic systems provide one type of climatic setting suitable to the development of temperate rainforest, alongside other and contrasting landscapes such as the orographic climate of continental mountains. Zones of high oceanicity and temperate rainforest are both strongly represented in the British Isles, and this study examines the degree of spatial overlap in Britain for standard definitions of each. Lichen epiphyte indicators associated with zones of oceanic woodland or temperate rainforest were quantified, and subsequently tested for conservation priority Atlantic oakwoods (Annex 1 Habitat Code 91A0: old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles). Discrepancies between oceanic woodland and temperate rainforest led to slightly different sets of indicator species that could be applied in biodiversity and habitat quality assessments. The definition of oceanic systems appeared to include warmer and lowland situations for example in coastal Wales and south-west England. In contrast, temperate rainforest extended to cooler upland areas in north-eastern Scotland. The species indicators for oceanic and temperate rainforest were nevertheless effective in identifying sites with different conservation priorities, such as for protection or restoration.

Dragonflies (Insecta: Odonata) as indicators of habitat quality in Mediterranean streams and rivers in the province of Barcelona (Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula)

In a field study carried out in 2011 and 2014 adult dragonflies were identified as a rapid and easy-to-use means of assessing habitat quality and biological integrity of Mediterranean streams and rivers in the province of Barcelona (Region Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula). The study included sampling sites from five different river catchments: Besos, Foix, Llobregat, Ter and Tordera. Multivariate statistical procedures and indicator species analysis were used to investigate the relationship between river ecological status, study sites and dragonfly species or species assemblages’ occurrence. The dragonfly association identified with western Mediterranean permanent streams, i.e. Cordulegaster boltonii, Boyeria irene, Onychogomphus uncatus and Calopteryx virgo meridionalis, was found only at the sites with the highest status. All these taxa were identified as indicator species of sites with the best scores for the macroinvertebrate based IBMWP index and for the combined IASPT index, which reflects the sensitiv...

Effects of plant defenses and water availability on seasonal foraging preferences of the Nubian Ibex (Capra nubiana)

The study of herbivore patch use has implications for herbivore habitat quality assessment, foraging behaviors, species interactions, and coexistence in patchy environments. This research focuses on the comparison of the effects of two qualitatively different plant defenses, mechanical (thorns) and chemical (tannins), on ibex foraging preferences during different seasons of the year. The occurrence of both chemical and mechanical plant defenses were experimentally manipulated in artificial resource patches, in addition to water availability. Ibex foraging preferences were quantified using giving-up densities during four separate fieldwork sessions in each of the seasons of the year at cliff sites overlooking the Zin Valley of the Negev Highlands. Both mechanical and chemical plant defenses significantly hindered ibex food intake overall. Mechanical and chemical defenses acted as substitutable defenses, meaning that their combined effects were not greater than additive. There were strong seasonal patterns of the amount of food consumed by ibex, further corroborated by comparison to rainfall levels. Seasonality also interacted with the effectiveness of plant defenses. Thorns were especially ineffective in summer, whereas tannins were most effective in spring. Decreases in seasonal food availability and increased marginal value of energy for ibex may have resulted in thorn ineffectiveness, while seasonal changes in the emergence of young foliage may have resulted in the greater springtime tannin effectiveness. Water was not found to mitigate the detrimental effects of tannins through dilution. The implications for decreased constraints on selective pressures on ibex due to the substitutability of plant defenses are discussed.

Synergistic effects of climate and land-use change on representation of African bats in priority conservation areas

Bats are considered important bioindicators and deliver key ecosystem services to humans. However, it is not clear how the individual and combined effects of climate change and land-use change will affect their conservation in the future. We used a spatial conservation prioritization framework to determine future shifts in the priority areas for the conservation of 169 bat species under projected climate and land-use change scenarios across Africa. Specifically, we modelled species distribution models under four different climate change scenarios at the 2050 horizon. We used land-use change scenarios within the spatial conservation prioritization framework to assess habitat quality in areas where bats may shift their distributions. Overall, bats’ representation within already existing protected areas in Africa was low (∼5% of their suitable habitat in protected areas which cover ∼7% of Africa). Accounting for future land-use change resulted in the largest shift in spatial priority areas for conservation actions, and species representation within priority areas for conservation actions decreased by ∼9%. A large proportion of spatial conservation priorities will shift from forested areas with little disturbance under present conditions to agricultural areas in the future. Planning land use to reduce impacts on bats in priority areas outside protected areas where bats will be shifting their ranges in the future is crucial to enhance their conservation and maintain the important ecosystem services they provide to humans.

The hydromorphological state in mountain rivers subject to human impacts: a case study in the North-West of Italy

The aim of this paper is the evaluation of the hydromorphological conditions of mountain rivers subject to extensive human activities. The hydromorphological state of a river depends on a high number of natural and anthropogenic characteristics, such as the presence of weirs, dams, or any other human infrastructure close to the riverbanks. The research focused on the mountain streams in Lake Maggiore catchment, located in the Italian Alps. The analyses were carried out using the method CARAVAGGIO (Core Assessment of River hAbitat VAlue and hydromorpholoGIcal cOndition), which complies with the EC Water Framework Directive. An intensive campaign of field surveys was conducted and a great amount of data was collected to obtain specific synthesis indexes. In particular, the Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA) and the Habitat Modification Score (HMS) were used to determine the diversification of natural characteristics and the level of hydromorphological alteration in the study area. Furthermore, a Lentic-lotic River Descriptor (LRD) was used in support of the information obtained by HQA and HMS. This research shows that the worst hydromorphological conditions can be found in rivers characterised by a high level of human constructions and hydropower plants. Finally, regression analyses were implemented to search a relationship between HQA, HMS and some morphological parameters. LRD was correlated to some hydraulic parameters. The results of this research are characterised by a high stochasticity.

A test of the Lake Habitat Survey method in Cleveland Reservoir and Lake Chivero (Manyame River Basin, Zimbabwe)

The Lake Habitat Survey (LHS) method has only been applied once in a tropical African reservoir and could potentially be a useful tool for hydromorphological impact assessments. This study (October 2012) tested the application of the LHS method to two Zimbabwean reservoirs, Cleveland and Chivero, which are impacted differently by human activities within their catchments with varying levels of physical impacts and lakeshore use. The Lake Habitat Quality Assessment (LHQA) and Lake Habitat Modification Score (LHMS) were used to assess the habitat quality and the magnitude of human impact on the reservoirs. Cleveland Reservoir LHQA (78 out of 112) and LHMS (16 out of 42) scores are indicative of relatively low human pressure (e.g. angling and canoeing). Results show that although Cleveland Reservoir is coming under increasing anthropogenic pressure, it does not appear to suffer from major alien plant invasion as compared to Lake Chivero, which scored 62/112 and 32/42 for the LHQA and LHMS, respectively. There were no significant differences between the numbers of vegetation layers in the riparian vegetation of the two reservoirs. However, there were significant differences in the number of macrophyte species and shoreline/riparian pressures between the two reservoirs. In conclusion, the use of the LHS can better enhance quality and reliability of lake hydromorphological assessments in tropical systems, where such an investigation is required to support decision making, after adaptations of the method have been made, i.e., inclusion of catchment impacts on lakes and reservoirs in LHS scoring metrics.

Prioritizing tropical habitats for long-distance migratory songbirds: an assessment of habitat quality at a stopover site in Colombia

Prioritizing tropical habitats for long-distance migratory songbirds: an assessment of habitat quality at a stopover site in Colombia

Damsels in distress – seasons, habitat structure and water pollution changes damselfly diversity and assemblage in urban wetlands

Odonates are considered to be good ecological indicators, hence, they are used in biological assessment of habitat quality. However, species responses may vary spatiotemporally and therefore, it is useful to establish species-habitat relationships at a regional level. To test if tropical urban odonates respond to seasons, and to explore species-habitat relationships with an emphasis on water pollution, I studied six wetlands in the city of Pune for a year. I also investigated whether combining data on dragonflies and damselflies, as is often done in many studies, skews the results. I recorded seasons, water pollution and habitat attributes as predictors of the odonate diversity and assemblage. I analyzed the data on dragonflies, damselflies and odonates (dragonfly-damselfly combined) separately for seasonal variation, and species-habitat relationships. I used multiple regression and canonical correspondence analyses. Forty-four species were recorded during the study. No seasonal variation was detected, except for damselflies, which showed an increase in the diversity and species number post-monsoon. Multiple regression analysis showed that damselfly and dragonfly diversity varied as a function of season and water pollution, and monsoon respectively. In pre-monsoon, damselfly diversity marginally increased with pollution. Both the analyses suggest that combining data on dragonflies and damselflies may skew the end results. Therefore, I recommend further intensive and long-term research using accurately sampled habitat and pollution attributes, as well as habitat restoration through conserving urban green spaces and promoting gardens with streams and ponds.

Effects of Sediment Removal on Prairie Pothole Wetland Plant Communities in North Dakota

ABSTRACT This study assessed the effects of sediment removal on Prairie Pothole Region wetland plant communities in North Dakota in order to determine if this management tool improves vegetation structure that benefits wildlife. Three categories of seasonal wetlands were evaluated: reference condition, converted cropland, and excavated. Vegetation surveys were conducted in the wet meadow and shallow marsh zones of 39 seasonal wetlands located in Benson, Eddy, Towner, and Wells Counties, North Dakota. Visual obstruction readings were taken at various heights in order to assess habitat quality. There were no geographic differences in the reference wetland plant communities. However, there were significant treatment differences between the plant communities of the wet meadow and shallow marsh zones. In general, excavated wetlands showed vegetation trends similar to reference wetlands, whereas the converted cropland wetlands tended to be more cattail-choked. Visual obstruction scores and mean percent cover of...

Quantile regression analysis as a predictive tool for lake macroinvertebrate biodiversity

The Water Framework Directive introduced in Europe major changes to improve the management of water resources. This study aims to highlight some of the potential implications of its implementation for lake water monitoring in Italy. A Life+ project was launched to plan the first monitoring of lake macroinvertebrates standardized at the national level.Quantile regression analysis was used to explain different metrics of diversity describing macroinvertebrate communities in response to twenty-one variables representing chemical, physical and morphological characteristics of the environment. Nine lakes located in two Italian regions (Piedmont and Sardinia) were analyzed covering a wide trophic spectrum, from oligotrophy to hyper-eutrophy. The lakes were sampled following the national standardized protocol with samples covering the three recognized lake zones: littoral, sublittoral, profundal.The studied lakes had high chemical variability with conductivity ranging between 53 and 561μS/cm, pH between 6.5 and 9.1, and alkalinity between 14 and 398mg/l. The bottom sediments were characterized by fine sand (range 51–99%), followed by silt (1–35%) and clay (0–28%). When the Lake Habitat Survey was also applied to these lakes, its synthetic indices (LHMS, Lake Habitat Modification Score and LHQA, Lake Habitat Quality Assessment) produced higher values in natural lakes (mean values±SD: LHMS=26±7, LHQA=57±3) than in the reservoirs (LHMS=22±4, LHQA=52±6). In all lakes, macroinvertebrates mainly consisted of chironomids and oligochaetes characterized by relative abundances up to 80% and >90%, respectively.Using quantile regression to evaluate limiting responses, only two variables, namely sampling depth and oxygen percent saturation (oxygen content), resulted the ones that best explained all the analyzed metrics of diversity of the macroinvertebrate communities. Depth and oxygen were then used to suggest synthetic models describing the various metrics of potential community diversity. These models can help the environmental agencies responsible for monitoring at the national level in distinguishing entire lakes or part of them with high biodiversity from those in altered conditions and then address remediation efforts toward the water bodies with the most critical conditions. Such approach could also be used to optimize the sampling procedures for the application of the Benthic Quality Index for lakes currently adopted at national level.

Response of invertebrates from the hyporheic zone of chalk rivers to eutrophication and land use.

Whereas the response of lotic benthic macroinvertebrates to different environmental stressors is a widespread practice nowadays in assessing the water and habitat quality, the use of hyporheic zone invertebrates is still in its infancy. In this study, classification and regression trees analysis were employed in order to assess the ecological requirements and the potential as bioindicators for the hyporheic zone invertebrates inhabiting four lowland chalk rivers (south England) with contrasting eutrophication levels (based on surface nitrate concentrations) and magnitude of land use (based on percentage of fine sediments load and median interstitial space). Samples of fauna, water and sediment were sampled twice, during low (summer) and high (winter) groundwater level, at depths of 20 and 35 cm. Certain groups of invertebrates (Glossosomatidae and Psychomyiidae caddisflies, and riffle beetles) proved to be good indicators of rural catchments, moderately eutrophic and with high fine sediment load. A diverse community dominated by microcrustaceans (copepods and ostracods) were found as good indicators of highly eutrophic urban streams, with moderate-high fine sediment load. However, the use of other taxonomic groups (e.g. chironomids, oligochaetes, nematodes, water mites and the amphipod Gammarus pulex), very widespread in the hyporheic zone of all sampled rivers, is of limited use because of their high tolerance to the analysed stressors. We recommend the use of certain taxonomic groups (comprising both meiofauna and macroinvertebrates) dwelling in the chalk hyporheic zone as indicators of eutrophication and colmation and, along with routine benthic sampling protocols, for a more comprehensive water and habitat quality assessment of chalk rivers.

Assessment of River Habitat Quality in the Hai River Basin, Northern China.

We applied a river habitat quality (RHQ) assessment method to the Hai River Basin (HRB); an important economic centre in China; to obtain baseline information for water quality improvement; river rehabilitation; and watershed management. The results of the assessment showed that the river habitat in the HRB is seriously degraded. Specifically; 42.41% of the sites; accounting for a river length of 3.31 × 104 km; were designated poor and bad. Habitat in the plain areas is seriously deteriorated; and nearly 50% of the sites; accounting for a river length of 1.65 × 104 km; had either poor or bad habitats. River habitat degradation was attributable to the limited width of the riparian zone (≤5 m); lower coverage of riparian vegetation (≤40%); artificial land use patterns (public and industrial land); frequent occurrence of farming on the river banks and high volumes of solid waste (nearly 10 m3); single flow channels; and rare aquatic plants (≤1 category). At the regional scale; intensive artificial land use types caused by urbanization had a significant impact on the RHQ in the HRB. RHQ was significantly and negatively correlated with farmland (r = 1.000; p < 0.01) and urban land (r = 0.998; p < 0.05); and was significantly and positively correlated with grassland and woodland (r = 1.000; p < 0.01). Intensive artificial land use; created through urbanization processes; has led to a loss of the riparian zone and its native vegetation; and has disrupted the lateral connectivity of the rivers. The degradation of the already essentially black rivers is exacerbated by poor longitudinal connectivity (index of connectivity is 2.08–16.56); caused by reservoirs and sluices. For river habitat rehabilitation to be successful; land use patterns need to be changed and reservoirs and sluices will have to be regulated.

Suitability index for restoration in landscapes: An alternative proposal for restoration projects

Forest fragmentation constitutes one of the main consequences of land cover change worldwide. Through this process gaps in habitat coverage are created and the ability of populations in the remaining fragments to maintain themselves is put in doubt. Hence, two options need to be considered: conserving the remaining forest fragments, and restoring habitat in some deforested patches with the aim of reestablishing the connections among the fragments. We established a mathematical index (SIR) that describes the suitability of individual habitat patches for restoration within a landscape. The index considers classes of distances among fragments and categories of habitat quality in the areas surrounding the fragments to assess habitat quality in terms of probability of dispersal and survival of propagules (especially seeds and cutting). In the present study, we created detailed maps depicting SIR values for two periods (1988 and 2011) for Sorocaba region (São Paulo State, Brazil). We derived land cover maps from satellite images for the two years of our study, and then surveyed the transition of land cover categories and landscape metrics between years. A model for the SIR was created using a map of distance classes among fragments and also a map of habitat quality established according to each land cover category. For both 1988 and 2011, pasture was the predominant land cover category. The main land cover transitions were from pasture to urban (10.6%) and from pasture to forest fragments (13.4%). Although the land cover class “wood sites” increased, the data of SIR revealed that the areas of habitat categorized as excellent and good both decreased, while habitat classes categorized as poor and very poor increased. Our model has the potential to be applied to other regions where the forest is fragmented. Hence, local policy makers will be able to use this model to determine local patches of high value for conservation and also the most ideal locations for restoration projects.

Stream Physical Characteristics Impact Habitat Quality for Pacific Salmon in Two Temperate Coastal Watersheds.

Climate warming is likely to cause both indirect and direct impacts on the biophysical properties of stream ecosystems especially in regions that support societally important fish species such as Pacific salmon. We studied the seasonal variability and interaction between stream temperature and DO in a low-gradient, forested stream and a glacial-fed stream in coastal southeast Alaska to assess how these key physical parameters impact freshwater habitat quality for salmon. We also use multiple regression analysis to evaluate how discharge and air temperature influence the seasonal patterns in stream temperature and DO. Mean daily stream temperature ranged from 1.1 to 16.4°C in non-glacial Peterson Creek but only 1.0 to 8.8°C in glacial-fed Cowee Creek, reflecting the strong moderating influence glacier meltwater had on stream temperature. Peterson Creek had mean daily DO concentrations ranging from 3.8 to 14.1 mg L−1 suggesting future climate changes could result in an even greater depletion in DO. Mean daily stream temperature strongly controlled mean daily DO in both Peterson (R2=0.82, P<0.01) and Cowee Creek (R2=0.93, P<0.01). However, DO in Peterson Creek was mildly related to stream temperature (R2=0.15, P<0.01) and strongly influenced by discharge (R2=0.46, P<0.01) on days when stream temperature exceeded 10°C. Moreover, Peterson Creek had DO values that were particularly low (<5.0 mg L−1) on days when discharge was low but also when spawning salmon were abundant. Our results demonstrate the complexity of stream temperature and DO regimes in coastal temperate watersheds and highlight the need for watershed managers to move towards multi-factor risk assessment of potential habitat quality for salmon rather than single factor assessments alone.

Habitat quality of estuarine nursery grounds: Integrating non-biological indicators and multilevel biological responses in Solea senegalensis

Estuaries are highly valuable ecosystems that provide various goods and services to society, such as food provision and supporting nursery habitats for various aquatic species. Estuarine habitat quality assessment is thus critical in managing both ecological and economic value. In this work, various biological and non-biological indicators of habitat quality in estuarine nursery areas were determined, encompassing local environmental conditions, chemical contamination, anthropogenic pressures, juvenile Solea senegalensis condition, biomarkers response to contamination and juvenile density. The various indicators provided an integrated view on habitat quality and their responses were broadly concordant. Nursery quality assessment based on anthropogenic pressure indicators and fish biomarker responses were very similar, signaling nursery areas with higher anthropogenic pressure in Tejo and Ria de Aveiro estuaries. Yet, favorable environmental conditions across all sites could have contributed to lessen the potential hazardous biological effects of exposure to anthropogenic stressors, resulting in soles’ fairly good condition and generally high juvenile density. Nevertheless, a mismatch between high juvenile density and high estuarine contribution to adult coastal populations was observed in areas with higher anthropogenic pressures. Although a causal relationship cannot be established, the results emphasize the need to fully understand how the estuarine period spent in estuaries and local processes determine the quantity and quality of juveniles exported to marine adult populations, which is critical to achieve the full potential of the fish production service of estuaries and coastal stock replenishment.

Landscape Factors Influencing Diversity of Habitat Conditions Across a Watercourse in the Vicinity of Tomaszów Lubelski City in the Roztocze Region (Poland)

Abstract The aim of the study was a hydromorphological valorisation of the river valley in the Roztocze region using the British method - River Habitat Survey (RHS). As a result of field research two numerical indicators HMS (Habitat Modification Score) and HQA (Habitat Quality Assessment) were identified and purity water classes were defined. The river did not fulfil the requirements of the Water Framework Directive, because its state was defined as poor and moderate. On the base of physical and chemical parameters, in the majority of water studied the watercourses were classified to the first class of purity. Only in one segment waters were below the first class, or even out of class.

Evaluating the Habitat of the Critically Endangered Kipunji Monkey

Effective conservation of threatened species requires a good understanding of their habitat. Most primates are threatened by tropical forest loss. One population of the critically endangered kipunji monkey Rungwecebus kipunji occurs in a restricted part of one forest in southern Tanzania. This restricted range is something of an enigma. We collated woody vegetation data to assess habitat quality in and around the core kipunji range (Vikongwa) compared to other nearby forests. Habitat quality in Vikongwa was high compared to other regional and African forests, in that tree stem density, basal area, species richness and availability of kipunji dietary species were all comparatively high. However, the nearby Sanje forest, where the kipunji is absent, had comparable habitat to Vikongwa. We concur with previous research that the kipunji is dependent on old growth forest. However, the availability of comparable vegetation in at least one nearby forest suggests that habitat is not the only reason for the kipunji's restricted range.