H II Regions Research Articles

Multiwavelength study of the HII region LHA 120-N11 in the Large Magellanic Cloud with eROSITA

Aims. We studied the diffuse X-ray emission around the HII region LHA 120-N11, which is one of the most active star-forming regions in the Large Magellanic Cloud. We want to determine the nature of the diffuse X-ray emission and improve our understanding of its origin including related interactions with the cold interstellar medium. Methods. We analyzed the diffuse X-ray emission observed with the extended Roentgen Survey with an Imaging Telescope Array (eROSITA) on the Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma mission to determine the physical properties of the hot diffuse X-ray emission. Four spectral extraction regions were defined based on the morphology of the X-ray emission. We also studied HI and CO data, as well as Hα line emission in the optical, and compared them with the properties of the diffuse X-ray emission. Results. The X-ray emission in the four regions is well fitted with an absorbed model consisting of thermal plasma models (vapec) yielding temperatures of kT = ~0.2 keV and kT = 0.8–1.0 keV. The comparison of the X-ray absorption column density and the hydrogen column density shows that the X-ray dark lane located north of N11 is apparently caused by the absorption by HI and CO clouds. By estimating the energy budget of the thermal plasma, we also investigated the heating mechanism of the X-ray emitting plasma. The energy of the diffuse X-ray emission in the superbubble which is a star-forming bubble with a radius of ~120 pc including OB associations LH9, LH10, LH11, and LH13 can be explained by heating from high-mass stars. In the surrounding regions we find that the energy implied by the X-ray emission suggests that additional heating might have been caused by shocks generated by cloud–cloud collisions.

Spectroscopic evidence of a possible young stellar cluster at the Galactic Center

Context. The nuclear stellar disk has been the most prolific star-forming region in the Milky Way over the past ∼30 million years. Notably, the cumulative mass of the three clusters currently found in the nuclear stellar disk, the Quintuplet, the Arches, and the Nuclear clusters, amounts to just 10% of the total anticipated mass of young stars that formed in this period. This discrepancy, known as the missing cluster problem, is attributed to factors such as high stellar density and tidal forces. Traces of dissolving clusters may exist as comoving groups of stars, providing insights into the star formation history of the region. Recently, a new cluster candidate associated with an HII region was reported through the analysis of kinematic data Aims. Our aim is to determine whether the young and massive stellar objects in the region share proper motion, positions in the plane of the sky, and line-of-sight distances. We use reddening as a proxy for the distances. Methods. We reduced and analyzed integral field spectroscopy data from the KMOS instrument at the ESO VLT to locate possible massive young stellar objects in the field. Then, we identified young massive stars with astrophotometric data from the two different catalogs to analyze their extinction and kinematics. Results. We present a group of young stellar objects that share velocities, are close together in the plane of the sky, and are located at a similar depth in the nuclear stellar disk. Conclusions. The results presented here offer valuable insights into the missing clusters problem. They indicate that not all young massive stars in the Galactic center form in isolation; some of them seem to be the remnants of dissolved clusters or stellar associations.

SuperCAM CO(3-2) APEX survey at a 6 pc resolution in the Small Magellanic Clouds

The Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) is an ideal laboratory for studying the properties of star-forming regions thanks to its low metallicity, which has an impact on the molecular gas abundance. However, a small number of molecular gas surveys of the entire galaxy have been carried out in the last few years, limiting the measurements of interstellar medium (ISM) properties in a homogeneous manner. We present the CO($3-2$) APEX survey at a $6$ pc resolution of the bar of the SMC, observed with the SuperCAM receiver attached to the APEX telescope. This high-resolution survey has allowed us to study certain properties of the ISM and to identify CO clouds in the innermost parts of the H$_2$ envelopes. We black adopted the CO analysis in the SMC bar comparing the CO($3-2$) survey with that of the CO($2-1$) of a similar resolution. We studied the CO($3-2$)-to-CO($2-1$) ratio ($R_ $), which is very sensitive to the environment properties (e.g., star-forming regions). We analyzed the correlation of this ratio with observational quantities that trace the star formation such as the local CO emission, the Spitzer color $ $, and the total IR surface brightness measured from the Spitzer and Herschel bands. For the identification of the CO($3-2$) clouds, we used the CPROPS algorithm, which allowed us to measure the physical properties of the clouds. We analyzed the scaling relationships of such physical properties. black We obtained $R_ 0.02$ for the SW bar and a slightly higher ratio 0.1,$ for N66 in the SMC. We found that $R_ $ varies from region to region, depending on the star formation activity. In regions dominated by HII and photo-dissociated regions (e.g., N22, N66) $R_ $ tends to be higher than the median values. Meanwhile, lower values were found toward quiescent clouds. We also found that $R_ black is correlated with the IR color $ $ and the total IR surface brightness. This finding indicates that $R_ $ increases with environmental properties, such as the dust temperature, total gas density, and radiation field. We identified $225$ molecular clouds with sizes of $R > 1.5$ pc and signal-to-noise ratios (S/N) of $> 3$ black of which only $17$ black are well resolved CO($3-2$) clouds black with S/N $ 5$. These $17$ clouds follow consistent scaling relationships to the inner Milky Way clouds but with some departures. For instance, CO($3-2$) tends to be less turbulent and less luminous than the inner Milky Way clouds of similar sizes. Finally, we estimated a median virial-based CO($3-2$)-to-H$_2$ conversion factor of for the total sample.

Simulating emission line galaxies for the next generation of large-scale structure surveys

ABSTRACT We investigate emission line galaxies across cosmic time by combining the modified L-Galaxies semi-analytical galaxy formation model with the JiuTian cosmological simulation. We improve the tidal disruption model of satellite galaxies in L-Galaxies to address the time dependence problem. We utilize the public code cloudy to compute emission line ratios for a grid of H ii region models. The emission line models assume the same initial mass function as that used to generate the spectral energy distribution of semi-analytical galaxies, ensuring a coherent treatment for modelling the full galaxy spectrum. By incorporating these emission line ratios with galaxy properties, we reproduce observed luminosity functions for H α, H β, [O ii], and [O iii] in the local Universe and at high redshifts. We also find good agreement between model predictions and observations for autocorrelation and cross-correlation functions of [O ii]-selected galaxies, as well as their luminosity dependence. The bias of emission line galaxies depends on both luminosity and redshift. At lower redshifts, it remains constant with increasing luminosity up to around $\sim 10^{42.5}\, {\rm erg\, s^{-1}}$ and then rises steeply for higher luminosities. The transition luminosity increases with redshift and becomes insignificant above z = 1.5. Generally, galaxy bias shows an increasing trend with redshift. However, for luminous galaxies, the bias is higher at low redshifts, as the strong luminosity dependence observed at low redshifts diminishes at higher redshifts. We provide a fitting formula for the bias of emission line galaxies as a function of luminosity and redshift, which can be utilized for large-scale structure studies with future galaxy surveys.

The distance to CRL 618 through its radio expansion parallax

ABSTRACT CRL 618 is a post-Asymptotic Giant Branch star that has started to ionize its ejecta. Its central H ii region has been observed over the last 40 yr and has steadily increased in flux density at radio wavelengths. In this paper, we present data that we obtained with the Very Large Array in its highest frequency band (43 GHz) in 2011 and compare these with archival data in the same frequency band from 1998. By applying the so-called expansion-parallax method, we are able to estimate an expansion rate of 4.0 ± 0.4 mas yr−1 along the major axis of the nebula and derive a distance of 1.1 ± 0.2 kpc. Within errors, this distance estimation is in good agreement with the value of ∼900 pc derived from the expansion of the optical lobes.

Pre-supernova stellar feedback in nearby starburst dwarf galaxies

Stellar feedback in dwarf galaxies remains, to date, poorly explored, yet is crucial to understanding galaxy evolution in the early Universe. In particular, pre-supernova feedback has recently been found to play a significant role in regulating and disrupting star formation in larger spiral galaxies, but it remains uncertain if it also plays this role in dwarfs. We study the ionised gas properties and stellar content of individual star-forming regions across three nearby, low-metallicity ($12+ O/H 7.5$), dwarf ($M_* odot $), starburst ($ SFR -2.8$) galaxies (J0921, KKH046, and Leo P) to investigate how massive stars influence their surroundings and how this influence changes as a function of environment. We extracted integrated spectra of 30 HII regions from archival VLT/MUSE integral field spectroscopic observations of these three dwarf starburst galaxies. We fitted the HII regions' main emission lines with Gaussian profiles to derive their oxygen abundances, electron densities, and luminosities, and we used the Stochastically Ligthing Up Galaxies ( SLUG ) code to derive the stellar mass, age, and bolometric luminosity of the stellar populations driving the HII regions. We quantified two pre-supernova stellar feedback mechanisms, namely the direct radiation pressure and photoionisation feedback, and explored how feedback strength varies with HII region properties. Our findings suggest that stellar feedback has less of an impact on evolved regions, with both the pressure of the ionised gas and the direct radiation pressure decreasing as a function of HII region size (i.e. the evolutionary stage). We find that these stellar feedback mechanisms are also dependent on the metallicity of the HII regions. These findings extend results from stellar feedback studies of more massive star-forming galaxies to the low-mass, low-metallicity regime. In addition, we conclude that the use of stochastic stellar population models significantly affects the relationships found between feedback-related pressure terms and HII region properties, and in particular that non-stochastic models can severely underestimate the bolometric luminosity of low-mass stellar populations.

The interaction of a large-scale nuclear wind with the high velocity HII region G0.17+0.15

Abstract We investigate the nature of a Galactic center source, G0.17+0.15, lying along the northern extension of the Radio Arc near l ∼ 0.2○. G0.17+0.15 is an HII region located toward the eastern edge of the radio bubble, embedded within the highly polarized Galactic center eastern Lobe where a number of radio filaments appear to cross through the HII region. We report the detection of hydrogen and helium recombination lines with a radial velocity exceeding 140 km s−1 based on GBT and VLA observations. The morphology of G0.17+0.15, aided by kinematics, and spectral index characteristics, suggests the presence of an external pressure dragging and shredding the ionized gas. We argue that this ionized cloud is interacting with a bundle of radio filaments and is entrained by the ram pressure of the radio bubble, which itself is thought to be produced by cosmic-ray driven outflows at the Galactic center. In this interpretation, the gas streamers on the western side of G0.17+0.15 are stripped, accelerated from 0 to δv ∼ 35 km s−1 over a time scale roughly 8 × 104 years, implying that ablating ram pressure is ∼700 eV cm−3, comparable to the ∼103 eVcm−3 cosmic-ray driven wind pressure in the Galactic center region.

Effects of physical conditions on the stellar initial mass function: The low-metallicity star-forming region Sh 2-209

Recent work suggested that the variation of the initial mass function (IMF) of stars depends on the physical conditions, notably, the metallicity and gas density. We investigated the properties of two clusters, namely the main cluster (MC) and the subcluster (SC), in the low-metallicity HII region Sh 2-209 (S209) based on recently derived IMFs. We tested three previously published correlations using previous observations: the top-heaviness of the IMF in dependence on metallicity, the half-mass radius, and the most massive star in dependence on the stellar mass of the embedded clusters. For this region, two different galactocentric distances, namely $10.5\ kpc $ and $18\ kpc $, were considered, where an age-distance-degeneracy was found for the previously determined IMF to be consistent with other formulated metallicity and density dependent IMFs. The determined half-mass radius $r_ h pc $ and the embedded cluster density $ ecl 0.1)\,10^6 M_ pc $ for the MC with an age of 0.5 Myr in S209 assuming a galactocentric distance of $18\ kpc $ support the assumption that a low-metallicity environment results in a denser cluster, which leads to a top-heavy IMF. Thus, all three tests are consistent with the previously published correlations. The results for S209 are placed in the context with the IMF determination within the metal-poor cluster in the star-forming region NGC 346 in the Small Magellanic Cloud.

Feedback from protoclusters does not significantly change the kinematic properties of the embedded dense gas structures

A total of 64 ATOMS sources at different evolutionary stages were selected to investigate the kinematics and dynamics of gas structures under feedback. We identified dense gas structures based on the integrated intensity map of H13CO+ J = 1−0 emission, and then extracted the average spectra of all the structures to investigate their velocity components and gas kinematics. For the scaling relations between the velocity dispersion, σ, the effective radius, R, and the column density, N, of all the structures, σ − N * R always has a stronger correlation compared to σ − N and σ − R. There are significant correlations between velocity dispersion and column density, which may imply that the velocity dispersion originates in gravitational collapse, also revealed by the velocity gradients. The measured velocity gradients for dense gas structures in early-stage sources and late-stage sources are comparable, indicating gravitational collapse through all evolutionary stages. Late-stage sources do not have large-scale hub-filament structures, but the embedded dense gas structures in late-stage sources show similar kinematic modes to those in early- and middle-stage sources. These results may be explained by the multi-scale hub-filament structures in the clouds. We quantitatively estimated the velocity dispersion generated by the outflows, inflows, ionized gas pressure, and radiation pressure, and found that the ionized gas feedback is stronger than other feedback mechanisms. However, although feedback from HII regions is the strongest, it does not significantly affect the physical properties of the embedded dense gas structures. Combined with the conclusions in our previous work on cloud-clump scales, we suggest that although feedback from cloud to core scales will break up the original cloud complex, the substructures of the original complex can be reorganized into new gravitationally governed configurations around new gravitational centers. This process is accompanied by structural destruction and generation, and changes in gravitational centers, but gravitational collapse is always ongoing.

Modeling the spectral energy distribution of starburst galaxies

Context. Analyzing multiwavelength observations of galaxies from the far-ultraviolet to the millimeter domains provides a wealth of information on the physical properties of galaxies and their evolution across cosmic time. Existing or upcoming ground-based or space-borne facilities with enhanced sensitivities and resolutions open an unprecedented window on the galaxy evolution in the early Universe. However, the derivation of galaxy properties from nebular emission lines is not trivial because the interstellar medium in a galaxy may be patchy, and emission might originate both from starburst emission regions and from partially covered photon-dominated regions. Aims. We model both the nebular continuum emission and the line emission of the spectral energy distribution for galaxies exhibiting both a HII region-like emission and emission like that from a photon-dominated regions to account for the partial shielding of the starburst emission region by dense clouds. Methods. Nebular galactic emission was modeled from far-ultraviolet to millimeter ranges in a two-sector model with an HII region and a photon-dominated region. The partial overlap of the HII region by the photon-dominated region was accounted for by a covering factor. We generated grids of emission spectra using the Cloudy photoionization code for our two-sector model. Results. We compared our models with spectral lines from different samples of galaxies for which we mixed characteristic emission from starburst regions and denser regions. We show that the infrared line ratios can constrain the density, metallicity, photoionization parameter, and the covering factor. We also built infrared diagnostic diagrams based on different infrared line ratios in which the galaxy location contains information about its physical conditions. Conclusions. The two-sector model that couples starburst emission regions and photon-dominated regions can span the existing observations. We implement the resulting emission line libraries in the CIGALE galaxy spectral energy distribution code to help interpret spectrophotometric observations.

Simultaneous measurements on cosmic curvature and opacity using latest HII regions and H(z) observations

The different spatial curvatures of the universe affect the measurement of cosmological distances, which may also contribute to explaining the observed dimming of type Ia supernovae. This phenomenon may be caused by the opacity of the universe. Similarly, the opacity of the universe can lead to a bias in our measurements of curvature. Thus, it is necessary to measure cosmic curvature and opacity simultaneously. In this paper, we propose a new model-independent method to simultaneously measure the cosmic curvature and opacity by using the latest observations of HII galaxies acting as standard candles and the latest Hubble parameter observations. The machine learning method-Artificial Neural Network is adopted to reconstruct observed Hubble parameter H(z) observations. Our results support a slightly opaque and flat universe at 1sigma confidence level by using previous 156 HII regions sample. However, the negative curvature is obtained by using the latest 181 HII regions sample in the redshift range zsim 2.5. More importantly, we obtain the simultaneous measurements with precision on the cosmic opacity mathrm Delta tau sim 10^{-2} and curvature mathrm Delta Omega _Ksim 10^{-1}. A strong degeneracy between the cosmic opacity and curvature parameters is also revealed in this analysis.

Classification of compact radio sources in the Galactic plane with supervised machine learning

Abstract Generation of science-ready data from processed data products is one of the major challenges in next-generation radio continuum surveys with the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) and its precursors, due to the expected data volume and the need to achieve a high degree of automated processing. Source extraction, characterization, and classification are the major stages involved in this process. In this work we focus on the classification of compact radio sources in the Galactic plane using both radio and infrared images as inputs. To this aim, we produced a curated dataset of $\sim$ 20 000 images of compact sources of different astronomical classes, obtained from past radio and infrared surveys, and novel radio data from pilot surveys carried out with the Australian SKA Pathfinder. Radio spectral index information was also obtained for a subset of the data. We then trained two different classifiers on the produced dataset. The first model uses gradient-boosted decision trees and is trained on a set of pre-computed features derived from the data, which include radio-infrared colour indices and the radio spectral index. The second model is trained directly on multi-channel images, employing convolutional neural networks. Using a completely supervised procedure, we obtained a high classification accuracy (F1-score > 90%) for separating Galactic objects from the extragalactic background. Individual class discrimination performances, ranging from 60% to 75%, increased by 10% when adding far-infrared and spectral index information, with extragalactic objects, PNe and Hii regions identified with higher accuracies. The implemented tools and trained models were publicly released and made available to the radioastronomical community for future application on new radio data.

MUSE observations of the giant low surface brightness galaxy Malin 1: Numerous HII regions, star formation rate, metallicity, and dust attenuation

Context. Giant low surface brightness (GLSB) galaxies are an extreme class of objects with very faint and extended gas-rich disks. Malin 1 is the largest GLSB galaxy known to date and one of the largest individual spiral galaxies observed so far, but the properties and formation mechanisms of its giant disk are still poorly understood. Aims. We used VLT/MUSE IFU spectroscopic observations of Malin 1 to measure the star formation rate (SFR), dust attenuation, and gas metallicity within this intriguing galaxy. Methods. We performed a penalized pixel fitting modeling to extract emission line fluxes such as Hα, Hβ, [N II]6583 and [O III]5007 along the central region as well as from the extended disk of Malin 1. Results. Our observations reveal for the first time strong Hα emission distributed across numerous regions throughout the extended disk of Malin 1. The emission extends to radial distances of ∼100 kpc, which indicates recent star formation activity. We made an estimate of the dust attenuation in the disk of Malin 1 using the Balmer decrement and found that Malin 1 has a mean Hα attenuation of 0.36 mag. We observe a steep decline in the radial distribution of the SFR surface density (ΣSFR) within the inner 20 kpc, followed by a shallow decline in the extended disk. We estimated the gas phase metallicity in Malin 1. We also found for the first time that the metallicity shows a steep gradient from solar metallicity to subsolar values in the inner 20 kpc of the galaxy, followed by a flattening of the metallicity in the extended disk with a relatively high value of ∼0.6 Z⊙. We found that the normalized abundance gradient of the inner disk of Malin 1 is similar to the values found in normal galaxies. However, the normalized gradient observed in the outer disk can be considered extreme when compared to other disk galaxies. A comparison of the SFR surface density and gas surface density shows that unlike normal disk galaxies or other low surface brightness galaxies, the outer disk of Malin 1 exhibits a relatively low star formation efficiency based on atomic gas-mass estimates, which may be mildly exacerbated by the vanishing upper molecular gas-mass limits found by recent CO studies. Conclusions. With the detection of emission lines in a large part of the extended disk of Malin 1, this work sheds light on the star formation processes in this unique galaxy, highlighting its extended star-forming disk, dust attenuation, almost flat metallicity distribution in the outer disk, and exceptionally low star formation efficiency. Together with previous results, our findings contribute to a more detailed understanding of the formation of the giant disk of Malin 1, and they also constrain possible proposed scenarios of the nature of GLSB galaxies in general.

Searching for stellar population in the molecular cloud GRSMC 045.49+00.04

Abstract Understanding the characteristics of young stellar populations is essential for deriving insights into star formation processes within parent molecular clouds and the influence of massive stars on these processes. This study primarily aims to investigate the young stellar objects (YSOs) within the molecular cloud G 045.49+00.04, including three ultra-compact HII (UC HII) regions: G 45.48+0.13 (IRAS 19117+1107), G 45.45+0.06 (IRAS 19120+1103), and G 45.47+0.05. We used near-, mid-, and far-infrared photometric data along with radiation transfer models and the modified blackbody fitting to identify and study the YSOs and the interstellar medium (ISM). In total, we identified 1482 YSOs in a 12 arcmin radius covering GRSMC 045.49+00.04, with a mass range from 1.5 M ${}_{\odot}$ to 22 M ${}_{\odot}$ . Of these, 315 objects form relatively dense clusters in the UC HII regions, close to the IRAS 19120+1103 and 19117+1107 sources. In each UC HII region, several high-mass stars have been identified, which in all likelihood are responsible for the ionization. The YSOs with 21.8 M ${}_{\odot}$ and 13.7 ± 0.4 M ${}_{\odot}$ are associated with IRAS 19120+1103 and 19117+1107, respectively. The non-cluster YSOs (1168) are uniformly distributed on the field. The distribution of YSOs from both samples on the colour-magnitude diagram and by the evolutionary ages is different. About 75% of objects in the IRAS clusters are concentrated around the Zero Age Main Sequence and have a well-defined peak at an age of Log(Age[years]) $\approx$ 6.75, with a narrow spread. The non-cluster objects have two concentrations located to the right and left of the 0.1 Myr isochrone and two well-defined peaks at Log(Age) $\approx$ 6.25 and 5.25. The fraction of the near-infrared excess stars, as well as the mass function confirm that the evolutionary age of the cluster is about 1 Myr. The K luminosity functions’ α slopes for the IRAS clusters and non-cluster objects are 0.32 ± 0.04 and 0.72 ± 0.13, respectively. The steeper α slope is suggesting that the non-cluster objects are less evolved, which is well consistent with the evolutionary age. Similar results – including evolutionary age, narrow age spread, and the less evolved nature of non-cluster objects – were also observed for the YSOs in the neighbouring G 45.14+00.14. The both regions (G 045.49+00.04 and G 45.14+00.14) are located and distinguished by their brightness and density at the edge of the bubble around the highly variable X-ray binary GRS 1915+105, which includes a black hole and a K-giant companion. Based on the above, we can assume that the process of star formation in the young IRAS clusters was triggered by the GRS 1915+105-initiated shock front inside the ISM massive condensation, through the process of ‘collecting and collapse’. Most non-cluster objects probably belong to a later generation. Their formation could be triggered by the recurrent activity of GRS 1915+105 and/or through the edge collapse scenario and mass accumulation through the gas flows along the ISM filaments.

Dilute axion stars converting to photons in the Milky Way’s magnetic field

In this paper we examine the possibility of dilute axion stars converting to photons in the weak, large-scale magnetic field of the Milky Way and show that they can resonate with the surrounding plasma and produce a sizable signal. We consider two possibilities for the plasma: free electrons and HII regions. In the former case, we argue that the frequency of the photons will be too small to be observed even by space-based radio telescopes. In the latter case, their frequency is larger, safely above the solar wind cut-off. We provide an estimate of the flux as a function of the decay constant and show that for fa< 2 × 1011 GeV, the signal will be above the radio emission of the solar system’s planets and it could potentially be detected by the NCLE instrument which is on board the Chang’e-4 spacecraft. Finally, we calculate the time scale of decay of the axion star and demonstrate that back-reaction can be neglected for all physically interesting values of the decay constant, while the minimum time scale of decay is in the order of a few hours.

Probing the non-thermal physics of stellar bow shocks using radio observations

Context. Massive runaway stars produce bow shocks in the interstellar medium. Recent observations revealed radio emission from a few of these objects, but the origin of this radiation remains poorly understood. Aims. We aim to interpret this radio emission and assess under which conditions it could be either thermal (free–free) or non-thermal (synchrotron), and how to use the observational data to infer physical properties of the bow shocks. Methods. We used an extended non-thermal emission model for stellar bow shocks for which we incorporated a consistent calculation of the thermal emission from the forward shock. We fitted this model to the available radio data (spectral and intensity maps), including largely unexplored data at low frequencies. In addition, we used a simplified one-zone model to estimate the gamma-ray emission from particles escaping the bow shocks. Results. We can only explain the radio data from the best sampled systems (BD+43°3654 and BD+60°2522) assuming a hard electron energy distribution below ∼1 GeV, a high efficiency of conversion of (shocked) wind kinetic power into relativistic electrons (∼1 − 5%), and a relatively high magnetic-to-thermal pressure ratio of ηB ∼ 0.2. In the other systems, the interpretation of the observed flux density is more ambiguous, although a non-thermal scenario is also favoured. We also show how complementary observations at other frequencies can allow us to place stronger constraints in the model. We also estimated the gamma-ray fluxes from the HII regions around the bow shocks of BD+43°3654 and BD+60°2522, and obtained luminosities at GeV energies of ∼1033 erg s−1 and 1032 erg s−1, respectively, under reasonable assumptions. Conclusions. Stellar bow shocks can potentially be very efficient particle accelerators. This work provides multi-wavelength predictions of their emission and demonstrates the key role of low-frequency radio observations in unveiling particle acceleration processes. The prospects of detections with next-generation observatories such as SKA and ngVLA are very promising. Finally, BD+43°3654 may be detected in GeV in the near future, while bow shocks in general may turn out to be non-negligible sources of (at least leptonic) low-energy cosmic rays.

G189.6+03.3: The first complete X-ray view provided by SRG/eROSITA

Context. G189.6+03.3 and IC443 are two examples of supernova remnants (SNRs) located in a region rich in gas and dust, and spatially close to the HII region S249. So far, the actual shape of IC443 is believed to be given by the past action of multiple supernova (SN) explosions, while a third unrelated SN might have originated G189.6+03.3. Aims. Although the IC443 nebula has been extensively observed in several bands, on the contrary, the nearby and much weaker SNR G189.6+03.3, discovered in 1994 with ROSAT, has received very little attention. Given the relatively large extent of this second remnant, the new dataset provided by the X-ray telescope eROSITA on board the Spectrum Roentgen Gamma mission provides a unique opportunity to characterize it more in detail. Methods. We provide a full spectral characterization of G189.6+03.3 emission for the first time, together with new images covering the whole remnant. As one of the leading hypotheses is that its emission partially overlaps with the emission from IC443, we test this scenario by dividing the remnant into several regions from which we extracted the spectra. Results. The new X-ray images provided by eROSITA show an elongated structure. Together with the detection of supersolar abundances of O, Mg, Ne, and Si and a subsolar abundance of Fe, these features could be an indication of a faint SN explosion. The X-ray spectra also highlight the presence of a 0.7 keV plasma component across all of the regions, together with an almost uniform column density. Conclusions. The ubiquitous presence of the 0.7 keV plasma component is a strong indication that G189.6+03.3 completely overlaps with IC443. We propose that the progenitors of G189.6+03.3 and IC443 could have been expelled from the same binary or multiple system, and this originated two explosions at different times and in different positions.

PECULIAR SPECTRUM OF THE WATER MASER IN THE DARK NEBULA MSXDCG24.33+011(G24.33+014)

Giant molecular clouds (GMC) in our and other galaxies and small dense molecular clouds inside the Galaxy (IRDC) form cores due to gravitational instability, in which massive stars and clusters of low-mass stars arise. The high background of infrared radiation inside the Galaxy creates advantages in favor of IRDCs in the study of star formation processes and accompanying phenomena such as accretion, the appearance of HII regions, bipolar outflows, and others that cause various responses in their molecular composition. As a part of studying the evolutionary state in the cloud IRDC MSXDCG24.33+011 (the alternative name is G24.33+014), observations of the water vapor maser were made. On November 28 (2022) during the observations using the RT-22 of the Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory, the H2O maser detail at the velocity of \({{V}_{{{\text{LSR}}}}} = 103.15\) km/s with the linewidth of 0.52 km/s was detected. Peak flux of 49.5(\( \pm 6\)) Jy was recorded. This detail was not detected on RT-22 in the PRAO on July 5 (2022) and has not been seen before by other researchers.

Intermediate mass black hole feedback in dwarf galaxy simulations with a resolved ISM and accurate nuclear stellar dynamics

AbstractRecent observations have established that dwarf galaxies can host black holes of intermediate mass (IMBH, 100Mȯ &lt; MIMBH ≲ 105 Mȯ). With modern numerical models, we can test the growth of IMBHs as well as their evolutionary impact on the host galaxy. Our novel subsolar-mass (0.8 solar mass) resolution simulations of dwarf galaxies (M* = 2 × 107 Mȯ) have a resolved three-phase interstellar medium and account for non-equilibrium heating, cooling, and chemistry processes. The stellar initial mass function is fully sampled between 0.08–150 Mȯ while massive stars can form HII regions and explode as resolved supernovae. The stellar dynamics around the IMBH is integrated accurately with a regularization scheme. We present a viscous accretion disk model for the IMBH with momentum, energy, and mass conserving wind feedback. We demonstrate how the IMBH can grow from accretion of the cold and warm gas phase and how the presence of the IMBH and its feedback impacts the gas phase structure.

The evolution of sulphur-bearing molecules in high-mass star-forming cores

Context. To understand the chemistry of sulphur (S) in the interstellar medium, models need to be tested by observations of S-bearing molecules in different physical conditions. Aims. We aim to derive the column densities and abundances of S-bearing molecules in high-mass dense cores in different evolutionary stages and with different physical properties. Methods. We analysed observations obtained with the Institut de RadioAstronomie Millimétrique (IRAM) 30 m telescope towards 15 well-known cores classified in the three main evolutionary stages of the high-mass star formation process: high-mass starless cores, high-mass protostellar objects, and ultracompact HII regions. Results. We detected rotational lines of SO, SO+, NS, C34S, 13CS, SO2, CCS, H2S, HCS+, OCS, H2CS, and CCCS. We also analysed the lines of the NO molecule for the first time to complement the analysis. From a local thermodynamic equilibrium approach, we derived the column densities of each species and excitation temperatures for those that are detected in multiple lines with different excitation. Based on a statistical analysis of the line widths and the excitation temperatures, we find that NS, C34S, 13CS, CCS, and HCS+ trace cold, quiescent, and likely extended material; OCS, and SO2 trace warmer, more turbulent, and likely denser and more compact material; SO and perhaps SO+ trace both quiescent and turbulent material, depending on the target. The nature of the emission of H2S, H2CS, and CCCS is less clear. The molecular abundances of SO, SO2, and H2S show the strongest positive correlations with the kinetic temperature, which is thought to be an indicator for evolution. Moreover, the sum of all molecular abundances shows an enhancement of gaseous S from the less evolved to the more evolved stages. These trends could be due to the increasing amount of S that is sputtered from dust grains owing to the increasing protostellar activity with evolution. The average abundances in each evolutionary group increase, especially in the oxygen-bearing molecules, perhaps due to the increasing abundance of atomic oxygen with evolution owing to photodissociation of water in the gas phase. Conclusions. Our observational work represents a test-bed for theoretical studies aimed at modelling the chemistry of sulphur during the evolution of high-mass star-forming cores.