Gymnosperm Plants Research Articles

Tomato ABSCISIC ACID STRESS RIPENING (ASR) gene family revisited.

Tomato ABSCISIC ACID RIPENING 1 (ASR1) was the first cloned plant ASR gene. ASR orthologs were then cloned from a large number of monocot, dicot and gymnosperm plants, where they are mostly involved in response to abiotic (drought and salinity) stress and fruit ripening. The tomato genome encodes five ASR genes: ASR1, 2, 3 and 5 encode low-molecular-weight proteins (ca. 110 amino acid residues each), whereas ASR4 encodes a 297-residue polypeptide. Information on the expression of the tomato ASR gene family is scarce. We used quantitative RT-PCR to assay the expression of this gene family in plant development and in response to salt and osmotic stresses. ASR1 and ASR4 were the main expressed genes in all tested organs and conditions, whereas ASR2 and ASR3/5 expression was two to three orders of magnitude lower (with the exception of cotyledons). ASR1 is expressed in all plant tissues tested whereas ASR4 expression is limited to photosynthetic organs and stamens. Essentially, ASR1 accounted for most of ASR gene expression in roots, stems and fruits at all developmental stages, whereas ASR4 was the major gene expressed in cotyledons and young and fully developed leaves. Both ASR1 and ASR4 were expressed in flower organs, with ASR1 expression dominating in stamens and pistils, ASR4 in sepals and petals. Steady-state levels of ASR1 and ASR4 were upregulated in plant vegetative organs following exposure to salt stress, osmotic stress or the plant abiotic stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA). Tomato plants overexpressing ASR1 displayed enhanced survival rates under conditions of water stress, whereas ASR1-antisense plants displayed marginal hypersensitivity to water withholding.

Petrological and organic geochemical properties of lignite from the Kolubara and Kostolac basins, Serbia: Implication on Grindability Index

The influence of different coal lithotypes on grindability has been investigated using lignite from two of the most important Upper Miocene lignite basins in Serbia (Kolubara and Kostolac). Yellow xylite-rich types demonstrated the most negative impact on Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI). All different types of xylite-rich coal, as well as total xylite-rich coal from the Kolubara basin have a negative influence on the grindability properties, while only the yellow type of xylite-rich coal from the Kostolac showed a negative impact on HGI. Matrix coal does not show a clear effect on HGI.A negative correlation between textinite content and HGI is observed in both basins, whereas contents of other macerals do not show influence on grindability properties.Content of total organic carbon demonstrated the negative impact on HGI. Correlation analysis indicates that the negative impact of the yellow type of xylite-rich coal and the sum of total xylite-rich coal on the grindability properties partly can be related to content of total organic carbon and high amount of soluble organic matter. Matrix lithotype does not show any significant correlation with bulk geochemical parameters in both basins.The peat-forming vegetation of all samples from both basins were dominated by decay-resistant gymnosperm (coniferous) plants, belonging to one or several of the families Taxodiaceae, Podocarpaceae, Cupressaceae, Araucariaceae, Phyllocladaceae and Pinaceae. Lignite from the Kolubara basin is characterized by a higher contribution of angiosperm vegetation than coal from the Kostolac basin. Peatification of the Kolubara coal occurred under more oxic conditions than the Kostolac one.Analysis of biomarkers indicated that the negative impact of all types of xylite-rich coal from the Kolubara on HGI can be related to the higher proportion of angiosperms, abundance of mid-chain n-alkanes and sesquiterpenoids, aromatization of non-hopanoid triterpenoids and hopanoids, and intense degradation of wood tissues in a more oxic environment. The positive impact of matrix coal on HGI in the Kolubara samples can be attributed to elevated content of non-aromatic hopanoids and low amounts of aromatic non-hopanoid triterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids, which seems to hinder the grindability properties.

Permian and Triassic microfloral assemblages from the Blue Nile Basin, central Ethiopia

Palynological investigation was carried out on surface samples from up to 400m thick continental siliciclastic sediments, here referred to as “Fincha Sandstone”, in the Blue Nile Basin, central Ethiopia. One hundred sixty species were identified from 15 productive samples collected along a continuous road-cut exposure. Six informal palynological assemblage zones have been identified. These assemblage zones, in ascending order, are: “Central Ethiopian Permian Assemblage Zone – CEPAZ I”, earliest Permian (Asselian–Sakmarian); “CEPAZ II”, late Early Permian (Artinskian–Kungurian); CEPAZ III – Late Permian (Kazanian–Tatarian); “CETAZ IV”, Lower Triassic (Olenekian Induan); “CETAZ V”, Middle Triassic (Anisian Ladinian); “CETAZ VI”, Late Triassic (Carnian Norian). Tentative age ranges proposed herein are compared with faunally calibrated palynological zones in Gondwana. The overall composition and vertical distribution of miospores throughout the studied section reveals a wide variation both qualitatively and quantitatively. The high frequency of monosaccate pollen in CEPAZ I may reflect a Glossopterid-dominated upland flora in the earliest Permian. The succeeding zone is dominated by straite/taeniate disaccate pollen and polyplicates, suggesting a notable increase in diversity of glossopterids. The decline in the diversity of taeniate disaccate pollen and the concomitant rise in abundance of non-taeniate disaccates in CEPAZ III may suggest the decline in Glossopteris diversity, though no additional evidence is available to equate this change with End-Permian extinction. More diverse and dominant non-taeniate, disaccate, seed fern pollen assignable to FalcisporitesAlisporites in CETAZ IV may represent an earliest Triassic recovery flora. The introduction of new disaccate forms with thick, rigid sacci, such as Staurosaccites and Cuneatisporites, in CETAZ V and VI may indicate the emergence of new gymnospermous plants that might have favourably adapted to coastal plain wetland environments with the return of humid conditions in the Middle to early Late Triassic. The present data constitute the first paleontologically substantiated record for the existence of Permian strata in the Blue Nile Basin. The new results allow for the first time a reliable biostratigraphic subdivision of the central Ethiopia Karoo and its correlation with coeval strata of adjacent regions in Gondwana. From a phytogeographic point of view, the overall microfloral evidence is in support of the position of central Ethiopia occupying the northern part of the southern Gondwana palynofloral province. In view of palaeoecological and paleoclimatic conditions, the microfloral change from the base to the top of the studied section may indicate a response to shifting climatic belts from warm- and cool-temparate climate in the earliest Permian to progressively drier seasonal conditions at successively higher palaeolatitudes during the Late Permian to Middle Triassic.

PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AND CHANGES IN THEIR MISCONCEPTIONS DURING PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION

This study reported herein aimed to reveal prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants and the effect of pre-service education program on their correct conceptions of this biological issue. Prospective teachers majoring in Elementary School Classroom Teacher Education constituted the target population of this study during the fall semester of the 2012-2013 academic years from Turkey. In order to reveal the difference between the misconceptions of prospective teachers who are at the beginning and at the end of their university education, the research was conducted as a cross-sectional study (78 first and 84 fourth class). The results showed that the prospective teachers in both groups have misconceptions and considerable confusion over the concepts of without-seed plants, seedy plants, vascular plants, non-vascular plants, gymnosperm plants, angiosperm plants, fruit and vegetable. In addition, the pre-service education did not seem to have an important effect on correction of prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants. In this context, prospective teachers are graduated with misconceptions about classification of plants. Key words: biology, classification of plants, misconceptions, prospective teachers.

English

The antibacterial property of methanol, ethanol, chloroform and hexane extracts of Kumaun Himalayan gymnospermous plant Biota orientalis leaves were investigated against some pathogenic Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains (Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Erwinia chrysanthemi and Xanthomonas phaseoli) using disc diffusion method. Methanol extract showed the highest inhibitory activity against B. subtilis (ZOI, 16 mm), followed by ethanol extract (14 to 16 mm), chloroform extract (12 to 15 mm) while lowest inhibition was recorded in hexane extract. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values were determined and recorded in the range 62.5 to 500 µg/ml and 125 to 500 µg/ml, respectively. The lowest MIC value 62.5 µg/ml was recorded against B. subtilis and E. chrysanthemi in the methanol extract whereas the lowest MBC value 125 µg/ml was recorded against B. subtilis in the same extract. The aqueous extract was found totally inactive against all the pathogens tested. Key words: Biota orientalis, antibacterial activity, disc diffusion, gymnosperms and plant extracts.

Carpel – Fruit in a Coniferous Genus Araucaria and the Enigma of Angiosperm Origin

Reproductive morphology of araucarian samara is revised revealing a carpellate structure of the stone. In A. columnaris it is formed by a supercoiled spermophyll (‘seed scale’), with a stigmatic apical lobe. This structure is analogous to the ‘classical’ peltate carpel of flowering plants. Stone opens with two apical pores. Pollen germinates on the apical stigmatic crest, with extracellular matter exuded from a stigmatic gland and its opposite on the bract apophysis. Ovulate structures are of the same basic type in the allied genera Wollemia and Pararaucaria. Neither of these genera is morphologically ‘transitional’ at the generic as well as familial levels thus setting araucarians apart from the rest of conifers no longer conceivable as a uniquely derived clade of gymnospermous plants. Araucarians thus deserve the status of a separate order anticipating the major evolutionary advancements of angiospermy in flowering plants.

The Parameters of the Menzerath-Altmann Law in Genomes

The relationship between the size of the whole and the size of the parts in language and music is known to follow the Menzerath-Altmann law at many levels of description (morphemes, words, sentences, …). Qualitatively, the law states that the larger the whole, the smaller its parts, e.g. the longer a word (in syllables) the shorter its syllables (in letters or phonemes). This patterning has also been found in genomes: the longer a genome (in chromosomes), the shorter its chromosomes (in base pairs). However, it has been argued recently that mean chromosome length is trivially a pure power function of chromosome number with an exponent of −1. The functional dependency between mean chromosome size and chromosome number in groups of organisms from three different kingdoms is studied. The fit of a pure power function yields exponents between −1.6 and 0.1. It is shown that an exponent of −1 is unlikely for fungi, gymnosperm plants, insects, reptiles, ray-finned fishes and amphibians. Even when the exponent is very close to −1, adding an exponential component is able to yield a better fit with regard to a pure power-law in plants, mammals, ray-finned fishes and amphibians. The parameters of the Menzerath-Altmann law in genomes deviate significantly from a power law with a −1 exponent with the exception of birds and cartilaginous fishes.

Three Palynological Puzzles

Three aspects of palynology in which core questions remain unanswered are reviewed. These are (1) the function of the huge range of types of exine sculpture of iso- and microspores that they share with many of those seen in angiosperm pollen; (2) the selective value of multiple apertures in eudicot pollen; and (3) the worldwide spread of very similar striate bisaccate pollen, apparently derived from at least three separate and very different gymnosperm plant groups in the Permo-Trias, when the macrofloras of that time show such strong biogeographic segregation.

Molecular cloning, characterization and promoter analysis of a novel MDR-type ABC transporter gene (GbMDR1) from Ginkgo biloba

A novel MDR-type ABC transporter cDNA (designated as Gbmdr1) was cloned and characterized for the first time from the gymnosperm plant species, Ginkgo biloba, using RACE technique. The full-length cDNA of Gbmdr1 was 4275 bp, and it contained a 3840 bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding a polypeptide of 1279 amino acid with a predicted isoelectric point of 8.22 and molecular mass of 139.6 kDa. The deduced GbMDR1 protein consisted of four domains in- cluding two TMDs (74-351, 716-993) and two NBDs (428-607, 1067-1251). The promoter of the Gbmdr1 was also cloned by the Genome Walking method. Sequence analysis demonstrated that there were many regulatory elements in the Gb- mdr1 promoter and the TATA box was located at -52~-56 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site. Sequence alignment and molecular evolution analysis revealed that GbMDR1 was a plant MDR-like ABC transporter protein, and that it has a further relationship with most other MDRs of plant species. Southern blot analysis indicated that Gbmdr1 belonged to a small multi-gene family. Tissue expression analysis indicated that Gbmdr1 expression was high in stems and leaves but low in roots. These results show that GbMDR1 is a MDR-like ABC transporter protein that may be involved in the transport and accumulation of secondary metabolites.

Canker on Bark of Populus spp. Caused by Cytospora tritici, a New Disease in China.

Species of Cytospora Ehrenb. and associated teleomorphs cause dieback and canker on over 85 species of angiosperm and gymnosperm plants throughout the world (2). Cytospora tritici Punith. was first observed on Triticum asetivum in Germany in 1980 but may also affect many hardwoods (3). During a survey of landscape trees in 2007, Populus spp. with cankers were found in Fushun, Baoxing, and Luding counties and Chengdu city in Sichuan Province. In these trees, bark canker pathogens discolored the sapwood. During damp weather, conidia were pushed out and formed orange spore horns. Conidiomatal stromata were immersed in bark, prominent, and 1.53 ± 0.33 mm in diameter (n = 10). Discs were white to grey, circular, oval, and 0.59 ± 0.14 mm in diameter (n = 10), with one ostiole per disc. Ostioles were dark grey. Locules were multi-chambered, chambers irregular. Conidia were lelongate-allantoid shaped, hyaline, aseptate, 5.04 ± 0.65 μm long (n = 50), and 1.22 ± 0.13 μm wide (n = 50). Fragments (5 × 5 mm2) of the junction of diseased and healthy tissues were surface sterilized with 1% NaOCl for 30 s and then rinsed twice in sterile distilled water. The pieces were placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates and incubated at 25°C for 7 days. The obtained isolates were cultured on PDA at 25°C in diffuse fluorescent light for 30 days. Upon isolation, the mycelium grew at a rate of 3 to 5 mm per day at 25°C, forming pale white-to-pure white flat colonies. Conidiomata never formed on PDA. ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 sequences were amplified via PCR from genomic DNA obtained from mycelia using universal primers ITS1 and ITS4 (4). The amplification products showed 100% sequence homology with C. tritici isolate DQ243812 from the GenBank database. The ITS sequences were submitted to GenBank (Accession No. JQ277333 to JQ277336). Pathogenicity was confirmed by inoculating 20 disinfected (70% ethanol) Populus tomentosa cuttings. Cuttings were incubated at 25°C for 30 days. Another two cuttings were treated with water agar as controls. In 18 of the 20 cuttings, the cambium developed a brown color and appeared water soaked 15 days later, whereas controls did not develop any symptoms. C. tritici was reisolated from symptomatic tissues. To our knowledge, this is the first report of C. tritici in China causing canker on Populus spp. Cytospora canker is common in practically all countries where poplar are grown. Canker expansion increases when tree defenses are compromised, usually by seasonal dormancy but also by drought, cold injury of wood, sun scald of bark, flooding of root, hail, freezing, or other stress (1). Future spread of C. tritici to western China is considered highly likely.

Comparative study of Serbian Miocene coals — Insights from biomarker composition

The origin of the organic matter (OM) and the characteristics of the paleoenvironment of Serbian brown coals covering a time-span from the Lower to the Upper Miocene were evaluated and compared based on comprehensive petrological and biomarker analyses. Investigated coals are typical humic coals. Peat-forming vegetation is characterized by abundant decay resistant gymnosperm (coniferous) plants, followed by variable amount of angiosperms. Coal forming plants belonged to the gymnosperm families Taxodiaceae, Podocarpaceae, Cupressaceae, Araucariaceae, Phyllocladaceae and Pinaceae. Peatification proceeded in fresh water environment under variable Eh settings, from anoxic to slightly oxic condition. Upper Miocene lignites were formed in neutral to slightly acidic environment, whereas Lower and Middle Miocene coals were deposited under neutral to slightly alkaline, and more reductive conditions, which is the result of calcium-rich surface waters derived from the surrounding Jurassic to Cretaceous calcareous country rock and higher water column level. Diagenetic changes of the OM were governed by bacterial activity, rather than thermal alteration. Biomarker pattern does not significantly differ in Serbian coals of different ages. The main differences between Upper, Middle and Lower Miocene coals are expressed by higher Gelification Index (GI), proxy ratio (Paq), n-C23/(n-C27+n-C31) and pimarane/16α(H)-phyllocladane ratio, as well as lower relative abundance of C31αβ(R)-hopane of the latter one. OM of Lower Miocene coals is more mature, corresponding to immature/early mature stage (huminite/vitrinite reflectance ~0.45), whereas OM of Upper Miocene lignites is in immature diagenetic phase (huminite reflectance ~0.3). Consequently, higher gelification of Lower Miocene coals is probably an effect of higher rank, however high humidity/wet climate and low acidity within the mire could not be excluded. A good correlation between biomarker parameters and paleoclimate data is observed, indicating that biomarker patterns represent a valuable tool that reflect even slight paleoclimate changes in Serbia during Miocene.

Transcriptome profiling in conifers and the PiceaGenExpress database show patterns of diversification within gene families and interspecific conservation in vascular gene expression

BackgroundConifers have very large genomes (13 to 30 Gigabases) that are mostly uncharacterized although extensive cDNA resources have recently become available. This report presents a global overview of transcriptome variation in a conifer tree and documents conservation and diversity of gene expression patterns among major vegetative tissues.ResultsAn oligonucleotide microarray was developed from Picea glauca and P. sitchensis cDNA datasets. It represents 23,853 unique genes and was shown to be suitable for transcriptome profiling in several species. A comparison of secondary xylem and phelloderm tissues showed that preferential expression in these vascular tissues was highly conserved among Picea spp. RNA-Sequencing strongly confirmed tissue preferential expression and provided a robust validation of the microarray design. A small database of transcription profiles called PiceaGenExpress was developed from over 150 hybridizations spanning eight major tissue types. In total, transcripts were detected for 92% of the genes on the microarray, in at least one tissue. Non-annotated genes were predominantly expressed at low levels in fewer tissues than genes of known or predicted function. Diversity of expression within gene families may be rapidly assessed from PiceaGenExpress. In conifer trees, dehydrins and late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) osmotic regulation proteins occur in large gene families compared to angiosperms. Strong contrasts and low diversity was observed in the dehydrin family, while diverse patterns suggested a greater degree of diversification among LEAs.ConclusionTogether, the oligonucleotide microarray and the PiceaGenExpress database represent the first resource of this kind for gymnosperm plants. The spruce transcriptome analysis reported here is expected to accelerate genetic studies in the large and important group comprised of conifer trees.

A tribute to Prof. DSc Elissaveta Bozilova on the occasion of her 80th birthday

One of the outstanding European palynologists and palaeoecologists, Prof. DSc Elissaveta Bozilova celebrates her 80th birthday on March 17th 2012. For more than 50 years she has been actively involved in science and teaching in the Faculty of Biology at Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski. Her interest in botany, and subsequently in palynology, was encouraged and supported by her master’s degree supervisor Prof. Boris Kitanov in the mid 1950s and also by her family members. The remarkable scientific and teaching career of Elissaveta Bozilova started in 1958 when she joined the academic staff of the Department of Botany as an Assistant Professor. The initial years of her research were devoted mostly to the investigation of the pollen morphology of various gymnosperm and flowering plant taxa, but subsequently this knowledge was applied to the study of the late Quaternary history of the Bulgarian flora and vegetation, and gradually expanded to aeropalynology, melissopalynology, archaeobotany, marinopalynology and pollen monitoring. Numerous pollen analytical studies were conducted by her on lake, mire and peat sediments in the glaciated and nonglaciated Bulgarian mountains, along the Black Sea coast, the Danube valley and inland plains as well as on marine cores. Elissaveta Bozilova and her co-workers postulated for the first time the main chronological stages in the lateglacial and Holocene vegetation development in different parts of the country and contributed to the elucidation of important scientific issues such as location of glacial tree refugia and migration routes, fluctuations in the tree line, formation of recent vegetation belts and specific plant communities, pollen dispersal mechanisms, climate changes, sea-level fluctuations, human impact on the natural environment since prehistoric times, etc. She also laid the foundations of contemporary aeropalynological and melissopalynological studies in Bulgaria. An important premise for the recognition of Elissaveta Bozilova as a leading Bulgarian palynologist was the establishment of personal and fruitful long standing scientific contacts with outstanding foreign specialists, including Prof. H. -J. Beug, Prof. G. Lang, Prof. B. E. Berglund, Dr. A. Smit, Prof. K. Faegri, Prof. H. J. B. Birks, Prof. M. Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, Prof. Y. Vasari, Prof. B. Ammann, Prof. L. -K. Konigsson, Prof. S. Hicks, Prof. J. -L. de Beaulieu, Prof. K. -E. Behre, Prof. N. Athanasiadis, Prof. C. -A. Haeggstrom, Prof. H. Jungner, Prof. A. Gerasimidis, and many others, who shared generously their knowledge and expertise in palaeoecological and botanical research, both in the field and in the laboratory. One of the most important professional merits of Elissaveta Bozilova, in addition to her intensive research and teaching activities, was the organization of the Laboratory of Palynology at the Department of Botany, which she administrated successfully until 2000. The laboratory established itself as the leading national centre in fundamental and applied palynology and palaeoecology, where Elissaveta Bozilova supervised over 25 master and doctoral students from several generations, most of them being engaged today either in research or teaching in the broad Communicated by F. Bittmann.

Cloning and expression of embryogenesis-regulating genes in Araucaria angustifolia (Bert.) O. Kuntze (Brazilian Pine)

Angiosperm and gymnosperm plants evolved from a common ancestor about 300 million years ago. Apart from morphological and structural differences in embryogenesis and seed origin, a set of embryogenesis-regulating genes and the molecular mechanisms involved in embryo development seem to have been conserved alike in both taxa. Few studies have covered molecular aspects of embryogenesis in the Brazilian pine, the only economically important native conifer in Brazil. Thus eight embryogenesis-regulating genes, viz., ARGONAUTE 1, CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON 1, WUSCHEL-related WOX, S-LOCUS LECTIN PROTEIN KINASE, SCARECROW-like, VICILIN 7S, LEAFY COTYLEDON 1, and REVERSIBLE GLYCOSYLATED POLYPEPTIDE 1, were analyzed through semi-quantitative RT-PCR during embryo development and germination. All the eight were found to be differentially expressed in the various developmental stages of zygotic embryos, seeds and seedling tissues. To our knowledge, this is the first report on embryogenesis-regulating gene expression in members of the Araucariaceae family, as well as in plants with recalcitrant seeds.

Bulk Geochemical Data of Fossil Wood from the Middle Jurassic Clays of Poland

Abstract Macroscopic observations, microscopic studies and literature data revealed that Middle Jurassic wood from Częstochowa area has a different state of preservation, and various types and degrees of mineralization and oxidation. Obtained results of organic matter fractionation illustrate a clear domination of polar fraction in the obtained extracts revealing low thermal maturity stage. Total organic carbon (TOC) values for analysed samples are in a wide range from 1.06% to 68.50%. The highest amount of TOC were measured in not or poorly mineralized wood samples but most of them are mineralized wood fragments, showing the TOC values in the range of 2% - 10%. Percentage content of carbonate in fossil wood constitute in a wide range from less than 1% CaCO3 to above 85% CaCO3. The resulting percentage of the total sulfur content is very varied and do not show convergence with other data such as TOC, carbonate content, etc and is most probable connected with pyritisation range. Unlike the Middle Jurassic clay samples, where long-chain and short-chain n-alkanes occur in similar concentrations, in wood samples always short-chain n-alkanes dominated, in the range from 15 to 23 carbon atoms in molecule. The values of the CPI are generally higher than 1 which indicates the contribution of organic matter derived from higher plant waxes, which are characteristic of e.g. needles from gymnosperm plants. Under the influence of post - diagenetic oxidation in mineralized wood samples distribution of n-alkanes is changing. Diaster-13(17)-enes with 28 and 29 carbon atoms in molecule are present in the wood samples, while those with 29 atoms strongly prevail.

Drmno lignite field (Kostolac basin, Serbia): Origin and palaeoenvironmental implications from petrological and organic geochemical studies

The objective of the study was to determine the origin and to reconstruct the geological evolution of lignites from the Drmno field (Kostolac Basin, Serbia). For this purpose petrological and organic geochemical analyses were used. Coal from the Drmno field is typical humic coal. Peat-forming vegetation dominated by decay of resistant gymnosperm (coniferous) plants, followed by prokaryotic organisms and angiosperms. Coal forming plants belonged to the gymnosperm families Taxodiaceae, Podocarpaceae, Cupressaceae, Araucariaceae, Phyllocladaceae and Pinaceae. Peatification was performed in neutral to slightly acidic, fresh water environment. Considering that organic matter of Drmno lignites was deposited at the same time, in the relatively constant climate, it could be supposed that climate probably had only small impact on peatification. Therefore, variations in compositions of macerals and biomarkers indicate changes in the water level, due to seasonal drying of the mire, which caused vegetation differences in the palaeoplant communities and changes of redox conditions (from anoxic to slightly oxic) during peatification. Diagenetic transformations of the organic matter were mainly governed by microbial activity, rather than thermal alteration.

Antibacterial Effects of Extracts of Thuja Orientalis cv Aurea Nana Cones against Food-spoilage and Food-borne Pathogens

BACKGROUND: Nowadays, Chemical antiseptics have become great problems for health and environmental, so that developing of new substitutes for chemical antiseptics is more and more important. Natural product is a kind of environment-friendly additive that could be used as antiseptic in food industry. Thuja orientalis cv Aurea Nana is a gymnospermous plant of the family Cupressaceae, native to northwestern China and widely naturalised elsewhere in Korea and Japan. This study was aimed to investigate the antibacterial potential of various organic extracts from T. orientalis cones against some food-borne and food-spoilage bacteria. METHODS AND RESULTS: Hexane extract (HE), chloroform extract (CE), ethyl acetate extract (EAE) and methanol extract (ME) were obtained from female cones of T. orientalis. The antibacterial activities of various extracts were tested by standard agar diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against five gram-positive and six gram-negative bacteria. Cell viability and morphology change of L. monocytogenes ATCC 10943 treated with hexane extract were also observed. The various extracts displayed remarkable antibacterial effects against all the gram-positive bacteria but did not show any effect against the gram-negative bacteria. Hexane extract has the highest inhibitory effect on cell viability of L. monocytogenes ATCC 10943. SEM observation also demonstrated the damaging effect of the hexane extract on the morphology of L. monocytogenes ATCC 10943 at the minimum inhibitory concentration. CONCLUSION(s): The tested gram-positive bacteria were significantly inhibited by organic extracts of T. orientalis cone. Hexane extract was the most potent against Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 10943, as evidenced by the lowest MIC level and the complete inhibition of cell viability within shortest exposure time, along with SEM observation.

Structural characterization and identification of biflavones in Selaginella tamariscina by liquid chromatography‐diode‐array detection/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

Biflavonoids, a special class of flavonoids, are widely distributed in gymnosperm plants and have various biological activities. They are also major bioactive ingredients in Selaginella tamariscina. In this work, we report the use of high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode-array detector (HPLC-DAD) and electrospray ionization multi-stage tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS(n)) to study the fragmentation behavior of three main types of biflavonoids using seven biflavonoid reference compounds and analyze the biflavonoids in Selaginella tamariscina. The most useful fragmentations in terms of structural identification are those involving the C-ring cleavage of biflavonoids. For amentoflavone-type biflavonoids (containing flavonoid parts I and II), fragmentation on the flavonoid part II at positions 1/3 and 0/4 are the primary pathways, whereas the chances are greater for C-ring cleavage fragmentation occurring on flavonoid part I at positions 1/3 and 1/4 for robustaflavone-type biflavonoids. However, the predominant diagnostic ions of the specific C-O-C-connected hinokiflavone-type biflavonoids are a series of ions resulting from the rupture of the connective C-O bond. Based on the fragmentation patterns of these reference compounds, 17 biflavonoids were identified in an extract of Selaginella tamariscina, three of which have not been previously reported as constituents of this plant. This study provides a powerful approach for the online structural elucidation and identification of different types of biflavonoids and positional isomers from Selaginella tamariscina and other biflavonoids distributed in related plants and prescriptions.

Chemometric study of functional groups in Pennsylvanian gymnosperm plant organs (Sydney Coalfield, Canada): Implications for chemotaxonomy and assessment of kerogen formation

The samples comprise the foliage of four pteridosperm-medullosalean plant-fossil species of differing preservation states and one of a cordaitean species from two Canadian Maritime sub-basins of Carboniferous age (300 Ma; Sydney and Stellarton coalfields, Nova Scotia, respectively. Included in the sample set were some coal samples from Sydney Coalfield, along with published data for coal macerals for comparison. By applying Schulze’s maceration process to the fossil foliage to obtain the cuticles, five sample forms evolved, viz. compressions, cuticles and fossilized cuticles, and acidic and alkaline solutions from Schulze’s process, to which was added the Sydney coal samples as the sixth form. Area integration of the absorbance spectra from solid and liquid state Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, produced functional chemical parameters which were organized into a data matrix of eight variables and 62 samples (8 x 62 matrix). Since we were interested in grouping the sample forms as a function of phytochemistry (functional groups) to assess primarily the palaeophytotaxonomic potential as a general approach to Carboniferous taxonomy, principal components were extracted from the matrix, and a subset of 4 x 33 samples in order to refine the grouping results from the initial component analysis. In either case, a two component model resulted, accounting for least 80% of the cumulative variance in either case. Overall, the results are encouraging in offering increasing support for fossil-leaf chemotaxonomy, but bearing in mind the limited sampling number (56) and restricted sampling of genera (5). Apart from this general conclusion, which supports our previous FTIR work vis-à-vis chemotaxonomy, we noted functional-group similarities in our FTIR data with types of kerogen and coal macerals. On this basis, we hypothesize that, in combination with the different preservation states of our fossil specimens, these factors have a bearing on kerogen genesis from plant material, i.e. the oil and gas prone Types I and II.

Antibacterial potential of leaf extracts of Juniperus communis L. from Kumaun Himalaya

The sensitivity of five pathogenic multi drug resistant bacteria (Bacillus subtilis,Erwinia chrysanthemi, Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium tumefaciens andXanthomonas phaseoli) was tested against the crude leaf organic extracts (methanol, ethanol, chloroform and hexane) and aqueous extracts of a Kumaun Himalayan gymnospermous plant Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae), employing disc diffusion method. All the extracts of Juniperus communis were found effective by showing a mark zone of inhibition except aqueous extract. The hexane extract showed maximum inhibition against the test microorganisms (ZOI, 16 – 21 mm) followed by ethanol, methanol and chloroform extract (ZOI, 6 – 17 mm). The inhibitory activity of these extracts was found very effective as compared to Ampicillin (10 mcg) and Erythromycin (15 mcg) standard antibiotics which were used as positive control against these tested microorganisms. Key words: Kumaun Himalaya, antibacterial activity, Juniperus communis, gymnosperm, crude extract, ampicillin, erythromycin.