Gwangneung Forest Research Articles

Change of ant fauna in the Gwangneung forest: Test on influence of climatic warming

Based on data of ants that were surveyed by the same method in the Gwangneung forest in 1993 and 2009, influences of climate changes on ant fauna were examined. If temperature in a region is lower than the optimum temperature, then the occurrence of the species increase as temperature rises; and vice versa. As temperature rises, it will be more advantageous to the species with high optimum temperature than the species with low optimum temperature. The optimum temperature, therefore, will have a linear relation with change of occurrence. In this study, two hypotheses were examined. Although significant difference was not found, the decrease expected group (with lower optimum temperature) decreased more in occurrence compared with the increase expected group (with higher optimum temperature). A highland dominant species, Myrmica kotokui, occurred in 1993 but did not occur in 2009. Comparison of ant fauna between 1993 and 2009 indicate a possibility of influence of climatic warming, but this finding was not proved statistically.

홍릉 숲의 곤충(개미와 지표성 딱정벌레)의 군집구조, 종다양성, 산림건강성

본 연구에서는 곤충군집의 특성을 이용하여 도시숲의 산림건강성 평가를 시도하였다. 이를 위해 서울도심에 위치한 홍릉 숲에서 함정트랩법으로 개미(Formicidae)와 지표성 딱정벌레(Carabidae)를 조사하여 광릉 숲의 그것과 비교하였다. 여기서 광릉 숲은 잘 보존되고 생물다양성과 자연성이 높기 때문에 산림건강성이 높을 것으로 추정하였다. 광릉 숲에 비해 홍릉 숲은 개미는 매우 많았으나, 딱정벌레는 매우 적었다. 종다양성의 경우에는 종풍부도는 광릉 숲이 높았으나, 종다양도는 홍릉 숲이 높았다. 광릉 숲에서는 소수의 숲 특이종에 의한 우점 현상이 심한데 비해, 홍릉 숲에서는 숲 특이종과 일반종이 균형을 이룸으로서 다양도가 광릉 숲에 비해 높았다. 이와 같이 홍릉 숲은 광릉 숲과는 곤충군집의 특성이 많이 달랐다. The present study is aimed to evaluate forest health in a fragmented urban forest using characteristics of insect communities. Ants (Formicidae) and ground beetles (Carabidae) surveyed by pitfall trap method in the Hongneung forest located in the urban area of Seoul were compared with those in the Gwangneung forest. The Gwangneung forest is supposed to be health due to its high biodiversity and well-conserved nature. Ants of the Hongneung forest was much more abundant compared with those of the Gwangneung forest. However, ground beetles showed the opposite patterns; much more abundant in the Gwangneung forest than in the Hongneung forest. Species richness was higher in the Gwangneung forest than in the Hongneung forest, but species diversity was higher in the Hongneung forest. In the Hongneung forest, forest specialist species and generalist species were balanced, whereas few forest specialists dominated in the Gwangneung forest. This dominance decreased species diversity in those Gwangneung forest. Thus, characteristics of insect community in the Hongneung forest were greatly different with those in the Gwangneung forest.

Molecular identification and larval description of Callipogon relictus Semenov (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), a natural monument of South Korea

An unknown larva of enormous size was found from Carpinus laxiflora in the Gwangneung forest and identified by using a barcode gene. It was a larva of Callipogon relictus Semenov, a natural monument of Korea, at an undetermined instar. Based on the result, we provide the larval morphological description of this particular instar, with the illustrations and biometric measurement data of diagnostic characters.

광릉숲의 임상별 조류의 분포 현황

This study was conducted from February 2005 to October 2007 to investigate bird distribution at three types of forest (mixed, broadleaf and coniferous) in Gwangneung forest. As a result, more birds used mixed forests than broodleaf and coniferous forest. During forest was opened to public, more birds also frequently used mixed forests. When forest was closed to public, there was no preference among three forest types. We also compared the number of species and individuals between open and restricted area. More species and individuals used restricted area.

졸참나무와 서어나무 고사목의 나무좀의 다양성과 풍부도

This study was conducted to elucidate the patterns of occurrence of bark beetles on deadwoods of Quercus serrata Fisher and Carpinus laxiflora Blume which are expected to increase due to climate change. The survey was carried out at the LTER site in Gwangneung forest in Gyeonggi Province in 2007-2008. Bark beetles were collected using emergence traps and attraction traps (funnel trap and window trap). A total of 408 beetles belonging to 12 species in two subfamilies were collected. Platypus koryoensis (Murayama) was the most abundant species. P. koryoensis and Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford) occurred mainly in deadwoods of Q. serrata. All other species, except two rare species, occurred commonly in deadwood of both tree species. Species richness and abundance of bark beetles were higher in the attraction traps than in the emergence traps, and higher in Q. serrata than in C. laxiflora. These indexes were higher in classes I-II or I-III than in classes III-IV or IV of deadwood. Bark beetle communities differed according to years and showed a little difference between tree species.

Expansion of the planar-fit method to estimate flux over complex terrain

An expanded planar-fit (PF) method over complex terrain is presented and applied to coordinate rotation of the eddy-covariance (EC) flux and vertical velocity estimation. Theoretical analysis indicates that PF coefficients depend on wind direction, and an expression of vertical velocity is deduced. We applied the theory using 1 year of observations from the KoFlux site in the Gwangneung Forest in Korea and investigated the influence of wind direction on the PF method. Then, we performed an expansion of the PF method to consider dependence of PF coefficients on wind direction and applied the PF method to every sector. The results show that the PF coefficients and tilt angles over complex terrain vary with wind direction. Two hundred 30-min data sets are sufficient to derive stable PF coefficients over hilly terrain for each sector. The relative difference in eddy-covariance flux between the general planar fit (GPF) and sector planar fit (SPF) is less than 10% for the scalar flux and about 18% for friction velocity. Vertical velocity and vertical advection (VA) terms were also calculated and compared using SPF and GPF methods, and a normal distribution and diurnal trend of real vertical velocity on clear days are presented.

광릉 활엽수림에서 Community Land Model 3.5-Dynamic Global Vegetation Model의 평가

본 연구에서는 광릉의 활엽수림에서 관측된 생태자료들을 이용하여 CLM3.5-DGVM(Community Land Model 3.5-Dynamic Global Vegetation Model)의 탄소교환과정에 대한 모의능력을 평가하고 탄소수지를 계산하였다. 또한 식생 종의 구성과 식물계절학, 그리고 기후 변동성이 탄소수지에 미치는 영향을 조사하기 위하여 민감도 실험을 수행하였다. 모델의 식물계절학은 잎의 출현과 낙하의 시기를 잘 모의하지 못하였으며, 특히 낙엽은 관측보다 한달 이상 지연되어 생장기간을 과대모의 하였다. 모의된 최대 엽면적지수(leaf alea index, LAI)는 5.8이며 관측값(4.5)에 비해 과대모의 되었다. 과대 모의된 LAI는 광합성량과 잎의 자가영양호홉의 과대모의를 야기하였으며, 이를 통해 연간 총 일차 생산량(gross primary producing, GPP)과 생태 호흡량(ecosystem respiration, <TEX>$R_e$</TEX>)의 과대모의에 기여하였다. 관측과 모델간의 LAI의 차이에도 불구하고 모의된 식생 탄소 저장항의 크기는 관측 보고된 값과 유사하였다. 모델의 식물계절학함수를 사용하는 대신 관측된 PAI로부터 유도된 식물계절학을 사용하면 생육 기간이 감소함에 따라 GPP와 <TEX>$R_e$</TEX>의 과대 모의는 완화되었다. 하지만 관측 보고된 값과 비교할 때 여전히 큰 값을 보였다. 모의된 탄소수지는 식생 종의 구성에는 유의한 민감도를 가지지 않았다. 모델입력자료에 기후변동성의 고려 유무에 따른 평형상태의 탄소저장량의 차이는 10%이하로 낮았으며 기후변동성이 평형상태의 탄소저 장량에 미치는 영향은 유의할 수준이 아니라고 사료된다. 모델에서 모의된 GPP와 <TEX>$R_e$</TEX>의 1994년부터 2003년간의 연간 변동성은 연 평균 대기온도와 일사량에 의존하였다. 모델의 다른 문제점들에 관해서도 본문에서 논의되었다. The performance of Community Land Model version 3.5 - Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (CLM-DGVM) was evaluated through a comparison with the observation over temperate deciduous forest in Gwangneung, Korea. Influence of plant phenology, composition of plant functional type, and climate variability on carbon exchanges was also examined through sensitivity test. To get equilibrium carbon storage, the model was run for 400 years driven by the observed atmospheric data at the deciduous forest of the year 2006. We run the model for 2006 with the equilibrium carbon storage at Gwangneung forest and compared the model output with the observation. A comparison of leaf area index (LAI) between the model and observation indicated that the simulated phenology poorly represented the timing of budburst, leaf-fall, and evolution of LAI. Senescence of the phenology was delayed about four weeks and the simulated maximum LAI (of 5.8 <TEX>$m^2$</TEX> <TEX>$m^{-2}$</TEX>) was greater than the observed value (of 4.5 <TEX>$m^2$</TEX> <TEX>$m^{-2}$</TEX>). The overestimated LAI contributed to overestimation of both gross primary productivity (GPP) and ecosystem respiration <TEX>$(R_e)$</TEX> through increased photosynthesis and foliar autotropic respiration <TEX>$(R_a)$</TEX>, respectively. Despite the discrepancy between the simulated and observed LAI, the simulated tree carbon storage amounts were comparable with the reported values at the site. Change in plant phenology from the simulated to the observed reduced more than six weeks of the plant growth period, resulting in the decreased amount of GPP and <TEX>$R_e$</TEX>. These values, however, were still higher (~10% of GPP and 40% of <TEX>$R_e$</TEX>) than the observed values. The effect of change in plant functional type composition (from dominant temperate deciduous forest to the coexistence of temperate deciduous and needle leaf forests) on the estimated amount of GPP and <TEX>$R_e$</TEX> was marginal. The influence of climate variability on carbon storage amounts was not significant. The simulated inter-annual variation of GPP and <TEX>$R_e$</TEX> from 1994 to 2003 depended on annual mean air temperature and total radiation but not on precipitation. Other deficiencies of CLM3.5-DGVM have been discussed.

Eight Unrecorded Higher Fungi Identified at the Korea National Arboretum

A total of 560 higher fungal specimens were collected in the Gwangneung Forest from May to November of 2007. All of the collected specimens were identified; categorized into 8 classes, 19 orders, 69 families, 165 genera, and 296 species; and deposited in the herbarium of the Korea National Arboretum. Of the identified specimens, 8 were confirmed as being new to Korea and are as follows: Cudoniella acicularis (Korean name: Jeombakisotugubeoseos), Discina ancilis (Korean name: Jomwonbanbeoseos), Helvella costifera (Korean name: Galbidaeanjangbeoseos), Entoloma cephalotrichum (Korean name: Jomkkaltaejiweodaebeoseos), Mycena leptocephala (Korean name: Yalbeungatweojuleumbeoseos), Naematoloma gracile (Korean name: Ganeundaegaeambeoseos), Sistotrema octosporum (Korean name: Hweosekcheonbeoseos), and Hydnellum peckii (Korean name: Pijeopkkaltaegibeoseos).

Seasonal variation in soil CO2 efflux in evergreen coniferous and broad‐leaved deciduous forests in a cool‐temperate forest, central Korea

AbstractWe measured the soil surface CO2 efflux (RS) from January 2005 to December 2006 in two neighboring stands in Gwangneung Forest, central Korea: evergreen coniferous forest (Abies holophylla, stand A) and broad‐leaved deciduous forest (Quercus‐dominated, stand Q). Regarding seasonal variation, RS rate was low during the winter and early spring months in each stand and peaked in late July [1170 (stand A) and 1130 (stand Q) in 2005, and 1000 (stand A) and 740 (stand Q) mg CO2 m−2 h−1 in 2006]. RS rate was higher in stand A than in stand Q during most of the growing season. The pattern of summer rainfall differed between 2005 and 2006. RS rate for both stands was suppressed significantly by the droughts in June 2005 and September 2006. After the heavy rainfall of July 2006, RS rate was lower than in July 2005 in both stands, but this decrement was much greater in stand Q than in stand A. In midsummer (August) 2006, under higher soil temperature (ST) and lower soil water content (SWC) conditions than in August 2005, RS rate of stand A was lower than that in August 2005, whereas stand Q showed no marked change. The exponential relationship between ST and RS accounted for approximately 91–97% of the RS variability in each stand and in each year. In stand A, the application of a second‐order polynomial function indicated a significant correlation between SWC and RS when the soil was warm (ST &gt; 15°C). Our results suggest that the seasonality of RS is strongly affected by the pattern of summer rainfall even in an Asia monsoon climate regime. In addition, the vegetation type (i.e., evergreen coniferous forest vs. broad‐leaved deciduous forest) plays a significant role in response of RS to various environmental fluctuations such as drought, heavy rainfall, and hot‐dry condition.

광릉 숲 나비군집의 종풍부도 산정

광릉 숲과 국립수목원내 전시원을 중심으로 1998년부터 2008년까지 11년간 총 291회 조사한 나비 조사 자료를 이용하여 나비군집의 종풍부도(종수)를 추정하였다. 선조사법으로 조사한 결과 112종 13,333개체의 나비가 관찰되었다. 종수누적곡선의 작성과 종수추정은 EstimatesS 프로그램을 이용하였다. 종수누적곡선은 291회 조사에서도 증가하여 미발견종이 남아 있음을 나타낸 반면, 7개 방법(ACE, ICE, Chao1, Chao2, Jack1, Jack2, Bootstrap)에 의한 종수추정곡선은 조사회수가 240-250회에 도달했을 때 안정된 값에 수렴하였다. 7개 방법에 의해 산정된 광릉의 나비종수는 120종부터 141종 사이였으며, 평균값은 128종이었다. 이에 반해 1958년 이래 보고된 과거조사자료를 취합하여 작성한 종목록은 148종이었는데, 최근의 나비상 변화의 분석결과를 토대로 나비 종수의 타당한 값을 검토하였다. 수목원내 전시원의 종풍부도가 자연림과 인공림 보다 높았고 자연림과 인공림 사이에서는 차이는 나타나지 않았다. 수목원내 전시원에는 상대적으로 숲에 비해 초지가 많고 서식처가 더 다양한 것이 나비군집의 종풍부도가 높아진 원인으로 판단하였다. Species richness (number of species) of the butterfly community in the Gwangneung forest, Korea, was estimated using data of the long-term butterfly monitoring, which had been carried out 291 times in the Korea National Arboretum or forest area of Gwangneung from 1998 to 2008. Abundance of each butterfly species was monitored using the line-transact method. In the present study, 13,333 butterflies belonging to 112 species were observed. Species accumulation curve and species richness was obtained using a software, EstimateS. The species accumulation curve shows an increase tendency even at 291 survey times, implying the possibility of the presence of a few unfound species. However, values of species richness estimated by the seven estimators were stabilized around 240-250 survey times. Species richness estimated by the estimators ranged from 120 species to 141 species with 128 species in average. However, the figure estimated by the previous studies since 1958 was 148 species. We estimated the reasonable scale of species richness on the base of recent analysis on the change of butterfly species. Species richness of the Korea National Arboretum was higher than that of natural forest and of plantation. However, species richness of butterfly was not different between natural forest and plantation. It is likely that increase of grasslands and habitat diversity in arboretum led to the increase of species richness of butterfly community.

광릉 숲 나비류의 생활주기 변화분석 및 문제점

지구온난화로 인한 나비 생활주기 변화를 파악하기 위해 광릉 숲에서 1958년과 2004년에 주별로 조사한 나비모니터링 자료를 분석하였다. 본 연구에서는 1958년에 비해 2004년에 나비류의 최초 출현시기와 평균 출현시기가 빨라졌는지, 출현기간이 길어졌는지를 검토하였다. 최초발생시기와 발생기간에서는 차이가 나타나지 않았고, 평균 출현시기에서는 느려진 종들이 오히려 많았다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 지구온난화로 예상되는 나비류 생활주기의 변화를 확인할 수 없었다. 기온 증가에도 불구하고, 예견되는 생활주기 변화가 나타나지 않은 원인을 검토하였다. 아울러 국내의 나비를 지구온난화 지표로 적절하게 활용하기 위해, 현재 나비상 연구에 있어서 문제점과 해결책을 검토하였다. In order to find phenological change of butterflies due to global warming, we analyzed weekly monitoring data of butterfly at Gwangneung forest in 1958 and 2004. It was tested whether the timing of first flight and mean flight of butterflies in 2004 became earlier due to global warming compared with those in 1958 and whether the duration of flight period became longer. No significant difference was found in timing of first flight and in duration of flight period between 1958 and 2004. Furthermore, species showing delayed timing of mean flight was more abundant than species showing earlier timing of mean flight. Hence, the results do not confirm the predicted changes of phonology due to global warming. We discussed reasons on the non-apparent phenological changes despite the increase of temperature, and the problems and solutions in butterfly study on Korean butterfly fauna in utilization of butterflies as indicator for global warming.

KoFlux 관측지에서 에디 공분산 자료의 품질관리 및 보증

이 연구노트에서는 KoFlux 관측지인 광릉 산림과 해남 농경지에서 관측된 에디 공분산 자료의 품질을 관리하고 보증하는 방법을 소개하였다. 자료의 품질 관리는 미기상학적/통계학적 분석을 기반으로 8 단계의 과정을 거쳐 이루어졌고 자료의 품질에 따라 5 등급으로 분리되어 표시되었다. 품질관리를 위해 사용된 프로그램과 품질 보증된 최종 자료는 KoFlux 웹사이트(http://www.koflux.org/)에서 내려 받을 수 있다. This research note introduces the procedure of the quality control and quality assurance applied to the eddy covariance data collected at the two KoFlux sites (i.e., Gwangneung forest and Haenam farmland). The quality control was conducted through several steps based on micrometeorological theories and statistical tests. The data quality was determined at each step of the quality control procedure and was denoted by five different quality flags. The programs, which were used to perform the quality control, and the quality assessed data are available at KoFlux website (http://www.koflux.org/).

몬순기후와 복잡지형의 특성을 갖는 광릉 산림유역의 물과 탄소순환에 대한 교차규모 연구로부터의 교훈

광릉 슈퍼사이트에서 대기와 식생간의 에너지와 물질교환 규명은 지형과 식생의 복잡성으로 인해 많은 기술적인 어려움에 직면하고 있다. 따라서 KoFlux 연구에서는 상호보완적인 다중 분야의 연구를 통해 이러한 어려움을 극복하기 위한 시도를 해 오고 있다. 본 논문에서는 현재 진행중인 KoFlux 연구의 예비결과 중 특히 광릉사이트에서의 물/탄소수지, 물과 탄소순환의 상호관련성 그리고 몬순기후하의 생태계에서 탄소순환에 미치는 수문학적 요인의 중요성에 대해 중점적으로 논의하고자 한다. 광릉낙엽활엽수림의 순생태생산량 (NEP)은 광범위한 생태학적 연구결과에 따르면 약 <TEX>${\sim}2.6\;t\;C/ha/y$</TEX>로 예상된다. 이를 미기상 플럭스 관측 결과와 함께 고려할 때 광릉 산림은 탄소의 중요한 육상흡원으로서 기능함을 예상할 수 있다. 다양한 생태수문 관측에 의해 규명된 유역단위 물수지에 의하면 연단위 전체강수량의 약 30-40%가 증발산(ET)에 해당함을 나타내고 있다. 광릉산림의 대표적인 수종인 졸참과 서어나무의 잎에서 얻어진 탄소 안정동위원소 조성에 근거하여 계산된 식물 성장기간의 평균 물이용효율(WUE)은 약 <TEX>${\sim}12\;{\mu}mol\;CO_2/mmol\;H_2O$</TEX>에 해당된다. 얻어진 증발산량과 물이용효율은 유역단위의 생태계 생산량을 산출하는데 이용될 수 있다. 나이테 성장량과 토양호흡량의 연단위 변화는 강수량과 강수의 패턴에 의해 크게 영향을 받음을 보이고, 이는 몬순기후에 영향을 받는 동아시아 지역 생태계에서 탄소 순환과정이 수문학적 조건과 밀접한 상관관계를 가짐을 지시한다. 연구지역의 공간적 특성을 정량화하기 위해 관측지의 구조 및 기능적 단위를 규명하기 위한 연구가 진행되고 있고 이를 통해 서로 다른 시공간 규모에서 진행되고 있는 연구의 결과물을 체계적으로 연결 통합하고 나아가 보다 광역적인 규모에서 대표적인 물/탄소 수지를 산출하기 위한 연구가 시도되고 있다. KoFlux Gwangneung Supersite comprises complex topography and diverse vegetation types (and structures), which necessitate complementary multi-disciplinary measurements to understand energy and matter exchange. Here, we report the results of this ongoing research with special focuses on carbon/water budgets in Gwangneung forest, implications of inter-dependency between water and carbon cycles, and the importance of hydrology in carbon cycling under monsoon climate. Comprehensive biometric and chamber measurements indicated the mean annual net ecosystem productivity (NEP) of this forest to be <TEX>${\sim}2.6\;t\;C\;ha^{-1}y^{-1}$</TEX>. In conjunction with the tower flux measurement, the preliminary carbon budget suggests the Gwangneung forest to be an important sink for atmospheric <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX>. The catchment scale water budget indicated that <TEX>$30\sim40%$</TEX> of annual precipitation was apportioned to evapotranspiration (ET). The growing season average of the water use efficiency (WUE), determined from leaf carbon isotope ratios of representative tree species, was about <TEX>$12{\mu}mol\;CO_2/mmol\;H_2O$</TEX> with noticeable seasonal variations. Such information on ET and WUE can be used to constrain the catchment scale carbon uptake. Inter-annual variations in tree ring growth and soil respiration rates correlated with the magnitude and the pattern of precipitation during the growing season, which requires further investigation of the effect of a monsoon climate on the catchment carbon cycle. Additionally, we examine whether structural and functional units exist in this catchment by characterizing the spatial heterogeneity of the study site, which will provide the linkage between different spatial and temporal scale measurements.

광릉수목원 내 산지사면에서의 토양수분 시계열 자료의 단변량 분석

Soil moisture is one of the essential components in determining surface hydrological processes such as infiltration, surface runoff as well as meteorological, ecological and water quality responses at watershed scale. This paper discusses soil moisture transfer processes measured at hillslope scale in the Gwangneung forest catchment to understand and provide the basis of stochastic structures of soil moisture variation. Measured soil moisture series were modelled based upon the developed univariate model platform. The modeling consists of a series of procedures: pre-treatment of data, model structure investigation, selection of candidate models, parameter estimation and diagnostic checking. The spatial distribution of model is associated with topographic characteristics of the hillslope. The upslope area computed by the multiple flow direction algorithm and the local slope are found to be effective parameters to explain the distribution of the model structure. This study enables us to identify the key factors affecting the soil moisture distribution and to ultimately construct a realistic soil moisture map in a complex landscape such as the Gwangneung Supersite.

광릉숲에서의 장수하늘소(딱정벌레목; 하늘소과) 서식실태 조사결과 및 보전을 위한 제언

본 연구는 광릉숲에서의 장수하늘소의 실제 서식현황을 재확인하고, 서식밀도를 추정하기 위해 수행하였다. 2006년 성충 발생기를 전후하여 조사한 결과 암컷 1개체가 발견되었으며, 발견된 암컷의 방사과정에서 산란행동이 관찰되었는데, 나무 상부로 이동하면서 서어나무의 수피 틈에 낱개로 산란하였으며 산란회수는 20회 이상임이 확인되었다. 금번연구를 통해 현재까지 알려진 정보들을 종합하고 이들의 보전을 위한 방안을 제시하였다. A survey to investigate the inhabitation of Callipogon relictus Semenov and evaluate the population of the species in the Gwangneung Forest was conducted during last seven years. During the study, a female was observed in the forest in 2006 which confirmed a possibility of the inhabitation with a small population. Fortunately, a ovipositing female was observed in the forest during this study period in 2006. The female laid more than 20 eggs singly in the crack of bark of the Carpinus laxiflora Blume. We collated the all available data for the species with the present study including the previous reports to provide the information far the conservation plan. It will be needed the long term monitoring and various efforts for the conservation of the species will be need hereafter.

대기 산성 강하물: 토양과 삼림 생태계의 반응

Soils of Korea experienced with long-term acidic deposition have been exhaustively leached exchangeable base cation (BC) for plant nutrient comparable with soils of forest decline areas in Europe and N. America. Ratios of of most soils are below than 1, which value is critical load for plant growth. Acid soil applied with dolomitic liming is increased as much as 20% and 244% in concentrations of and , respectively, as well as shrub leaves increase much cation uptake by 1 year later. Ions of and in acid rain are absorbed by the canopy acted as the sink but f is leached out from the canopy to throughfall as the source at Gwangneung forest with a little of acidic deposition, however, such sink and source functions are not found at Kwanaksan forest because of so much deposition. In coniferous and deciduous forested watershed ecosystems ions of , , and from throughfall are retained in forest floor but ions of , and are leached from the floor to streamwater.

Butterfly Fauna of the Gwangneung Forest, Korea

As a result of the review of past literature and the authors' survey, 148 species of butterflies in the Gwangneung Forest are listed, which has been well known as a natural relic of Korea. Eight species such as Isoteinon lamprospilus Felder and Felder, Favonius cognatus Staudinger, F. korshunovi (Du-batolov and Sergeev), Pseudozizeeria maha (Kollar), Spindasis takanonis Matsumura, Aldania themis (Leech), Argynnis zenobia Leech and Erebia wanga Bremer are newly added to this fauna based on the surveys during 2000-2004. This list incorporates taxonomie changes and corrections in scientific names and the deletion of 11 species erroneously recorded. Historical review and discussions on the tendency of occurrences for some species are also provided.