Food Gums Research Articles

One Hundred Years of Commercial Food Carbohydrates in the United States

Initiation and development of the industries producing specialty starches, modified food starches, high-fructose sweeteners, and food gums (hydrocolloids) over the past century provided major ingredients for the rapid and extensive growth of the processed food and beverage industries. Introduction of waxy maize starch and high-amylose corn starch occurred in the 1940s and 1950s, respectively. Development and growth of the modified food starch industry to provide ingredients with the functionalities required for the fast-growing processed food industry were rapid during the 1940s and 1950s. The various reagents used today for making cross-linked and stabilized starch products were introduced between 1942 and 1961. The initial report of enzyme-catalyzed isomerization of glucose to fructose was made in 1957. Explosive growth of high-fructose syrup manufacture and use occurred between 1966 and 1984. Maltodextrins were introduced between 1967 and 1973. Production of methylcelluloses and carboxymethylcelluloses began in the 1940s. The carrageenan industry began in the 1930s and grew rapidly in the 1940s and 1950s; the same is true of the development and production of alginate products. The guar gum industry developed in the 1940s and 1950s. The xanthan industry came into being during the 1950s and 1960s. Microcrystalline cellulose was introduced in the 1960s. Therefore, most carbohydrate food ingredients were introduced in about a 25 year period between 1940 and 1965. Exceptions are the introduction of maltodextrins and major developments in the high-fructose syrup industry, which occurred in the 1970s.

Rheological properties of aqueous blends of high purity barley β-glucan with high purity commercial food gums

Rheological properties such as flow behaviour, viscosity, viscoelasticity, and thixotropy of solutions of β-glucan purified from barley fibre concentrate and twelve commonly used food gums, alone and in combinations, were characterised using an oscillatory rheometer. Pure gums and gum combinations were evaluated at 0.5% and 0.75% (w/w) total gum concentration in aqueous medium, whereas the β-glucan/gum ratios were kept at 90/10 or 80/20 (w/w). Viscosity synergism was observed for β-glucan solutions in combination with xanthan, iota-carageenan, and carboxymethyl cellulose. However, barley β-glucan blends with lambda-carageenan, Konjac, high- and low-methoxyl pectin, microcrystalline cellulose, alginate, and gum arabic showed marked lowering of the viscosity compared to β-glucan alone. In addition, β-glucan/xanthan gum blends demonstrated improved shear tolerance compared to xanthan dispersions alone, and soft gel transformation. Non-thixotropic behaviour was observed for 0.5 and 0.75% (w/w) β-glucan dispersions and its gum combinations. None of the gum combinations studied demonstrated thixotropy.

Determination of Methylcellulose and Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose Food Gums in Food and Food Products: Collaborative Study

A collaborative study was performed to determine the reproducibility of a method for the determination of methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) in food. These widely used food gums possess unusual solubility characteristics and cannot accurately be determined by existing dietary fiber methods. The new method uses the enzyme-digestion procedure of AOAC Official Method 991.43. Digestate solutions must be refrigerated to fully hydrate MC or HPMC. The chilled solutions are filtered and analyzed by size-exclusion liquid chromatography. Collaborating laboratories received 28 samples containing MC or HPMC in the range of 0-100%. The sample set included blind duplicates of 5 food matrixes (bread, milk, fish, potato, and powdered juice drink). Cochran and Grubbs tests were used to eliminate outliers. For food samples containing MC, values for within-laboratory precision, repeatability relative standard deviation (RSDr), ranged from 4.2 to 16%, and values for among-laboratories precision, reproducibility relative standard deviation (RSDR), ranged from 11 to 20%. For HPMC samples, RSDr values ranged from 6.4 to 27%, and RSDR values ranged from 17 to 39%. Recoveries of MC and HPMC from the food matrixes ranged from 78 to 101%. These results show acceptable precision and reproducibility for the determination of MC and HPMC, for which no Official AOAC Methods exist. It is recommended that this method be adopted as AOAC Official First Action.

A method for determination of soluble dietary fiber in methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose food gums

A size-exclusion chromatographic approach is proposed as a modification to the currently practiced AOAC International methods, to provide reliable means for the determination of methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) food gums as soluble dietary fiber (SDF). The official enzymic/gravimetric AOAC methods, including the most common method 991.43, do not reflect the SDF status of MC and HPMC, and possibly many other water-soluble cellulosics gums that may either gel or precipitate at high temperatures in 100% aqueous solutions, or may be soluble in approximately 71% ethanol. As referenced within this paper, all of these gums exhibit the characteristics of SDFs, from both the chemical and physiological standpoint. The enzymic digestion principle of the existing AOAC methods is left unchanged in general, with only very minor adjustments introduced. The SDF recovery determined by the modified method is 77% for MC and 90% for HPMC in 0.1% (wt/wt) aqueous solution and 93% and 99%, respectively, in a pound cake food matrix. The method has been adopted First Action by AOAC as method 2006.08.

Validation of a size exclusion liquid chromatographic method for determination of methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose food gums as soluble dietary fiber in food and food product

A size exclusion liquid chromatographic method was developed for the determination of methylcellulose (MC) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as dietary fiber in food. These modified cellulose food gums are used in a wide variety of foods and physiologically behave as dietary fibers but are not determined using existing analytical dietary fiber methods. This article reports a single laboratory validation of a new method based on AOAC 991.43, and uses a liquid chromatograph with a refractive index detector. This new method was validated for foods containing 0.2–27% of MC and HPMC employing AOAC’s Single Laboratory Validation protocol. Ten food samples of meat, bread, milk powder, potato and orange juice drink mix were studied. Precision of the new method, measured as total standard deviation (St), varied from 0.01 to 2 for foods containing 0.2–27% MC; and from 0.05 to 0.2 for foods containing 0.5–3.8% HPMC. Recovery varied from 76% to 85% for MC, and from 75% to 113% for HPMC. Use of a blank matrix proved successful in correcting for indigenous food fibers. The method demonstrated excellent linearity down to 0.03%. This provides the sensitivity required for food nutrition labeling purposes. These results show the method is suitable for determination of MC and HPMC in food and support further validation through a collaborative study.

Kappa-carrageenan interactions in systems containing casein micelles and polysaccharide stabilizers

When polysaccharide food gums are added to milk-based fluid systems, phase separation of casein micelles inevitably occurs, due to biopolymer incompatibility. κ-Carrageenan can prevent bulk phase separation, although stabilized systems are still microscopically phase-separated. The mechanism by which κ-carrageenan stabilizes casein micelles from phase separation was studied in this research. Images from field emission scanning electron microscopy suggested that κ-carrageenan adhered to the casein micelle surface. Dynamic light scattering data showed casein micelle diameter increasing linearly ( r 2=0.978) as κ-carrageenan concentration increased, within the concentration range of 0–0.03% (w/w) and 3.65% casein. Phase separation experiments in 13% milk solids-not-fat (3.65% casein) −0.14% locust bean gum mixed systems with κ-carrageenan in the coil state (60 °C), κ-carrageenan in the helical state, but with helix aggregation blocked (addition of NaI), λ-carrageenan, guar (all at 0.01–0.03%) and agarose (0.01–0.05%) were used to understand the conditions in which stabilization of phase separation occurred. Our work suggests that both κ-carrageenan adsorption to casein micelle surfaces and κ-carrageenan helix aggregation are required for it to be effective at preventing casein micelle macroscopic phase separation from polysaccharides.

Effects of food gums on viscosities of starch suspensions during pasting

Pasting curves of starches in gum (hydrocolloid) solutions at low concentrations (starch 3.6%, gum 0.4%) were produced with a Brookfield viscometer. Gums produced a variety of effects on viscosities of starches during starch pasting (increase or decrease greatly or slightly or no effect). A viscosity increase before the normal starch pasting temperature was detected for normal maize starch in the presence of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), gellan, xanthan, guar gum, and sodium alginate. Waxy maize, waxy rice, tapioca, regular rice, potato, and wheat starches gave mixed responses. It appeared that interactions between certain leached molecules, primarily amyloses, and certain gums were responsible for the viscosity increase occurring before starch pasting. The pasting peak viscosity of potato starch was greatly decreased by negatively charged gums (CMC, carageenans, alginate, xanthan). The repelling forces between the phosphate groups on potato starch and the negative charges on molecules of these gums were hypothesized to be the cause. This hypothesis was supported by results from similar systems (potato starch plus salt solution and phosphorylated normal maize starch plus anionic gums), both of which systems also produced lower peak viscosities. It was found, by microscopic examination of potato starch heated to 95 °C in solutions of ionic gums without shear, that the gums altered the granule pasting process.

Determining sugar composition of food gum polysaccharides by HPTLC

Most commercially important food gums, including gum arabic, guar gum, and carrageenan are polysaccharides which consist of multiple sugars, including uronic acids. For the first time, the sugars in these and other gums were determined by comparison ofR F values with standards by HPTLC on Si 50000 plates after acid hydrolysis of the polysaccharides. The solvent system consisted of npropanol∶water∶triethylamine∶30% NH3 (80∶20∶0.2∶4). Analysis was rapid, as the separations were accomplished using a single plate development and the sugars were located by simple charring. Sugar separations on Si 50000 with this solvent system are more efficient than others and provide the additional advantage over bonded-phase silicas in that sugars can be detected using aggressive methods.

The effect of hydrocolloids on the stability and viscosity of cloudy apple juices

The influence of xanthan gum (XG) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) on the colloidal stability of cloudy apple juice has been studied. Concentrations from 0.4–0.5% completely inhibited juice clarification. At lower gum concentrations, juices with CMC were more stable. Z-potential ( ζ) was measured by laser doppler electrophoresis. As expected, cloudiness in apple juice increased its stability with | ζ| (the more electro-negative, the more stable) following a behavior common to both food gums. Therefore, stability of cloudy juices with food gums could be predicted only in terms of ζ. Log–log plot of apparent viscosity ( η a) vs ( γ), showed a typical shear thinning behavior, with a transition from dilute to concentrated solution at some critical concentration. At low shear rates, XG was more viscous than CMC, demonstrating that the greater stabilizing effect of CMC was basically due to its electro-negativity.

High-Molecular-Weight Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose Taken with or between Meals Is Hypocholesterolemic in Adult Men

Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) is a food gum that shares certain characteristics, such as high viscosity, with soluble fibers. In this trial, the safety and cholesterol-lowering efficacy of HPMC consumed with and between meals was evaluated in free-living male volunteers with mild-to-moderate hypercholesterolemia. After a 14-d baseline period, men (n = 51) with LDL cholesterol between 3.36 and 4.91 mmol/L and triglycerides <3.95 mmol/L were randomly assigned to consume 5.0 g/d HPMC in 240 mL of orange drink, taken either with or between meals, for a 2-wk treatment period. In the Between Meals group, total cholesterol was reduced by 8.0% vs. baseline in wk 1 of treatment (P < 0.05) and 5.1% in wk 2 (P < 0.01). LDL cholesterol concentrations fell by 12.0 and 7.7% (P < 0.01). In the With Meals group, reductions were 9.5 and 8.3% for total cholesterol, and 12.5 and 12.8% for LDL cholesterol (wk 1 and 2, respectively, P < 0.01). In both groups, HDL cholesterol decreased by approximately 5% during wk 1 of treatment (P < 0.01), but the wk 2 concentrations were not significantly different from baseline. There were no significant differences between groups in lipid responses, although there was a trend for a smaller LDL cholesterol-lowering effect during wk 2 of treatment in the Between Meals group (P < 0.06). Gastrointestinal-related adverse experiences (mostly mild) were twice as common among participants who ingested HPMC with meals (P < 0.05). These results suggest that HPMC has a lipid-lowering effect, which may be more consistent when taken with meals.

TALL (OIL) TALE OF PINE CHEMICALS

The manufacture of pine-derived chemicals is an old-line, capital-intensive business that, for several companies, offers reasonable growth and surprisingly healthy profits. For Hercules Inc., however, this doesn't seem to be the case. The company, which was once the world leader in pine chemicals, announced in late February that it has entered discussions to sell its pine and hydrocarbon resin business to an unidentified major company. The resin business sale is part of a larger Hercules plan to reduce debt and restructure around core businesses. The company is also selling its food gums unit to a partnership it has formed with Lehman Brothers; at the same time, the partnership is purchasing Monsanto's Kelco food gum subsidiary for $685 million (C&EN, Feb. 28, page 12). Hercules Resins has annual sales of about $450 million and 1,500 employees. Its product line is divided roughly 50-50 between resins made by refining crude tall oil, ...

Hercules embraces changes to cut debt

Hercules is about to undertake a series of structural changes that it hopes will raise more than $1 billion. These changes, Hercules President and Chief Executive Officer Vincent J. Corbo says, epitomize new strategy to monetize assets and reduce debt so that we can concentrate on our growth businesses. Hercules' debt stands at $2.5 billion. As a first step, Hercules is buying Monsanto's Kelco food gum business in partnership with New York City-based investment fund Lehman Brothers Merchant Banking Partners for $685 million. Hercules will contribute its own food gum division to the as-yet-un-named venture, receiving $550 million in return. Food gums such as xanthan, gellan, and welan are used to thicken puddings, dressings, cottage cheese, and ice cream products, among others. Monsanto originally paid $1.08 billion to buy Kelco from Merck & Co. in 1995 in a deal that included an alginate business recently sold to International Specialty Products. Although financial details were ...

Cholesterol lowering with high-viscosity hydroxypropylmethylcellulose

Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) is a food gum having several structural and functional properties in common with hypocholesterolemic soluble fibers. The safety and cholesterol-lowering efficacy of HPMC, incorporated into a National Cholesterol Education Program Step I diet, was compared with placebo in patients with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia. After an 8-week National Cholesterol Education Program Step I dietary lead-in phase, 160 patients with low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol between 130 and 200 mg/dl and triglycerides <300 mg/dl were randomized to placebo, 2.5, 5.0, or 7.5 g/day of HPMC for a 6-week treatment period. Patients returned to the clinic every 2 weeks for lipid measurements and safety assessments. HPMC significantly lowered total, LDL, and non–high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. LDL cholesterol concentrations (average of weeks 4 and 6) decreased by 3.0% (4.9 mg/dl), 5.9% (10.3 mg/dl), 12.1% (20.4 mg/dl), and 11.7% (20.3 mg/dl) from baseline levels in the placebo and 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 g/day HPMC treatment groups, respectively. Statistically significant (p <0.05) reductions in LDL cholesterol were observed in the 5.0 and 7.5 g/day HPMC groups compared with placebo and 2.5 g/day HPMC treatment groups. Total and non-HDL cholesterol responses paralleled those of LDL cholesterol. There were no significant differences between the treatment groups in HDL cholesterol or triglyceride responses, incidence of adverse experiences, or gastrointestinal-related adverse experiences. These results suggest that HPMC is a well-tolerated and effective adjunct to diet for lowering LDL cholesterol in patients with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia.

Studies on the rheological properties and functional potentials of achi ( Brachystegea eurycoma) and ogbono ( Irvingia gabonesis) seed gums

Water soluble gums were extracted from seeds of achi ( Brachystegea eurycoma) and Ogbono ( Irvingia gabonesis). The rheological properties of each gum were studied at temperatures from between 10–70°C at 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5% concentrations. The effects of small quantities of the gums on some of the quality characteristics of an ice cream mix were investigated. These characteristics were compared with those of some commercial food gums, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), Kappa carrageenan (KCA), and sodium alginate (SA). The viscosities of both gums were time-independent and Ogbono seed gum (OSG) appeared to be more pseudoplastic than Achi seed gum (ASG). The pseudoplastic nature was not affected by increasing temperature. The temperature control was more critical for OSG (E a. 20.2 MJ mol −1) than ASG (E a 13.9 MJ mol −1) during processing. The viscosity behaviour of ASG indicates that it may be a highly branched polysaccharide. The overrun, viscosity, shapefactor and meltdown values of the ice cream, when ASG was added as stabilizer, were 95%, 0.035 PaS, 72% and 32%, respectively. Values for OSG were 70%, 0.025 PaS, 65% and 37.7%, respectively. Only values for the ASG cream fell within the ranges of values obtained for the commercial gums. ©

Effect of Emulsifiers and Food Gum on Nonfat Ice Cream

Nonfat ice cream was made with a mix composition of 12% milk SNF, 12% sucrose, 5% corn syrup solids, 3.5% maltodextrin, and 0.25% stabilizer blend. Two emulsifiers at three levels each and one gum at three levels were evaluated in nonfat ice creams. Emulsifiers were 52% α-monoglyceride and 72% α-monoglyceride, and the gum was hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose. A portion of the mix was retained as the control, which contained no emulsifier or additional food gum, and was evaluated in addition to the nine treatments. Mean fat content of the mix was 0.14%, and total solids content was 34.16%. Results indicated differences between treatments in whipability and stability to heat shock; however, there were no differences in meltdown. There was about a 10-μm increase in mean ice crystal size for treatments when compared after 1 and 12 wk of storage. Addition of either emulsifier to nonfat ice cream reduced the mean ice crystal size when compared with the control or gum, which is a major factor in improvement of the texture of nonfat ice cream. The sensory panel preferred the nonfat ice cream with 0.25% added monoglyceride and diglyceride with 72% α-monoglyceride content stabilizer over the control with respect to coarseness and iciness, coldness intensity, and overall body and texture scores.

SIMULATING VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SELECTED FOOD GUMS AND GUM MIXTURES USING A FRACTIONAL DERIVATIVE MODEL

ABSTRACTA four parameter semi‐empirical model has been developed using the fractional derivative (FD) theory, which consists of applying a mathematical operator to a constitutive equation. The Fourier transform approach is used to obtain the analytical function of the derived model. Since a single four parameter model can predict both storage modulus (G′) and dynamic viscosity (η′), the developed FD model was appropriate in describing the viscoelastic properties of selected food gum dispersions, food gum mixtures and gellan gel. This fractional derivative model shows good simulation capability for selected food gum dispersions (0.5% xanthan gum, 0.5 and 0.75% locust bean gum, and 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0% guar gum), 0.6% gellan gel, and binary mixtures of carrageenan and guar gum, car‐rageenan and xanthan, as well as guar and xanthan gum.

Rheological properties of food gums as related to their water binding capacity and to soy protein interaction

Water binding capacity and hydration time of several food gums were measured by the Baumann method. Xanthan gum was by far the best water binder (232 mL/g) followed by guar gum (40 mL/g) and sodium alginate (25 mL/g). Propylene glycol alginate and locust bean gum (LBG) were the poorest water binders (15 and 11.6 mUg). Hydration time ranged from 50 min for sodium alginate to 3500 min for guar gum. A good correlation was obtained between the consistency coefficient of gum dispersion and the imbibed water fraction calculated from Baumann measurements. Soy protein (20 g/kg) showed synergism with xanthan and guar gum (1.5 or 3 g/kg) as shown by the increase of the consistency coefficients of mixed systems over the expected values from 81 to 139%. For the xanthan gum and soy protein systems, yield stress was greatly enhanced too. The interaction between locust bean gum and soy protein changed from antagonism at 20 g/kg soy protein and 1 g/kg LBG to synergism for 1.5 and 3 g/kg gum concentration. When soy protein interacted with a blend (1:1) of xanthan and guar, the synergistic increase in the consistency coefficient and yield stress was also apparent. However, soy protein showed an antagonistic interaction with the blend xanthan/LBG (2 g/kg) as it decreased gel properties of the system.

Functional properties of precooked taro flour in sorbets

The replacement of commercial food gums such as locust bean gum (LBG), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and carrageenan gum (CG) with precooked taro flour in tropical fruit (pineapple, guava, pineapple and passion fruit) sorbet manufacturing was investigated. Functional properties such as viscosity, firmness and melting characteristics were compared. Results indicated that precooked taro flour can replace LBG, CMC and CG successfully without noticeable change in functional properties.

RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF SALAD DRESSINGS 2: EFFECT OF STORAGE

The consistency index and the flow behavior index of the power law model, and yield stress according to the Casson model that describe the viscoelastic nature of a model salad dressing were determined as a function of storage time and temperature. A four parameter model was employed to describe the creep‐compliance data. Major changes in the magnitudes of the rheological parameters took place during the initial seven days of storage. The changes are attributed to coalescence of oil droplets and to hydration of the food gum. Creep‐compliance data on six commercial salad dressings showed significant differences in the rheological behavior among the dressings.

Detection of food gums on polyamide strips using horseradish peroxidase—benzidine staining and laser-beam densitometry

Solutions of food gums were applied to polyamide strips, stained with horseradish peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.7)—benzidine (HRP-B) and scanned with a laser densitometer. The staining technique was effective for anionic gums, including algin, carrageenan, carboxymethylcellulose, gum arabic, pectin, propyleneglycol alginate and xanthan, but ineffective with the neutral gums, guar gum, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and locust bean gum. Cellulose acetate strips were also examined but were less effective because of high background staining. For carrageenan a band containing 20 ng could be readily detected. Standard curves for carrageenan concentrations from 0.008 to 0.4% were linear, with r > 0.95 for samples run on the same strip. There was substantial variation from strip to strip, but consistent results were obtained when all bands (samples and standards) were on the same strip. Analysis of carrageenan that was added to milk and heated showed recoveries close to 100%.