Gummy Stem Blight Research Articles

Eficácia de fungicidas associados a inseticidas sobre o crestamento gomoso do caule e produtividade do meloeiro

RESUMO Uma das mais importantes doenças que atacam o melão (Cucumis melo L.), é o Crestamento Gomoso do Caule, causada pelo fungo Didymella bryoniae que é altamente agressivo em condições de temperatura e umidade elevadas. Desta forma, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a eficácia de fungicidas associados a inseticidas no controle do crestamento gomoso do caule do meloeiro em condições de campo naturalmente infestado. O trabalho foi realizado em dois ensaios, sendo que no ensaio I, foi utilizada a cultivar Eldorado 300, com os tratamentos de inseticidas seletivos e não seletivos em mistura com fungicidas. Para o ensaio II, foi utilizado o híbrido Hibrix, com parte dos mesmos tratamentos do ensaio I. De acordo com os resultados, os tratamentos sem fungicida e as misturas de fungicida, inseticida seletivo e não seletivo com o uso de monitoramento de pragas e doenças, apresentaram níveis elevados de incidência do crestamento gomoso do caule do meloeiro e valores inferiores de produtividade de frutos. Ao contrario foi observado para os tratamentos com fungicida ou a mistura de fungicida com inseticida, mostraram maior eficiência no controle da doença, resultando em maiores índices produtivos.

Erratum to: Two Stagonosporopsis species identified as causal agents of gummy stem blight epidemics of gherkin cucumber (Cucumis sativus) in Karnataka, India

Since 2008, severe disease epidemics with symptoms resembling gummy stem blight have occurred on gherkin cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) in Karnataka, India. Three morphologically identical, but genetically distinct, Stagonosporopsis species, namely: Stagonosporopsis cucurbitacearum (syn. Didymella bryoniae), Stagonosporopsis citrulli, and Stagonosporopsis caricae, can cause gummy stem blight of cucurbits. Our objective was to use molecular techniques to identify if one or more of these species caused the recent epidemics on gherkin. It is not known which of these species is causing gummy stem blight of cucurbits in India. Based on the original host species, disease symptoms, fulfilment of Koch’s postulates, and macroscopic and microscopic morphological analysis, the causal agent was tentatively identified as Stagonosporopsis sp. To identify which species was responsible, nine isolates were obtained from the outbreaks on gherkin in two regions of Karnataka in October and November 2014. The internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of the ribosomal DNA was sequenced, and a previously developed PCR-based marker for distinguishing species causing gummy stem blight was used to identify the species of the isolates. We determined that seven of the isolates were S. caricae and two were S. citrulli. This is the first account in India that at least two Stagonosporopsis species are causing gummy stem blight of cucurbits, and are substantial threats to gherkin productivity and other cucurbits in India.

Control of gummy stem blight in watermelon through different management systems

Gummy stem blight, caused by Didymella bryoniae (Auersw.) Rehn, is a disease that affects the productivity of watermelon leading to losses exceeding 40%. This study aimed at evaluating the efficiency of different production systems in the control of watermelon gummy stem blight in order to establish effective methods to combat the disease. The following treatments were applied: conventional management, integrated management and organic production. Mineral fertilizer was applied to conventional and integrated management, whereas in organic production was used the cattle manure. There was application of fungicides and insecticides in commercial doses in conventional and integrated management, and the application was according to monitoring in integrated management. No fungicide or insecticide was applied to organic production. The disease severity was assessed by rating scale. The experimental design was randomized blocks. The severity of gummy stem blight increased substantially during fruit formation. Watermelon plants grown with integrated management showed lower levels of disease severity, while plants in organic production exhibited higher severity levels. We conclude that the management based on judicious monitoring in field is the best way to attain appropriate phytosanitary quality for the watermelon crop in Tocantins State, Brazil.

Polyoxin D and Other Biopesticides Reduce Gummy Stem Blight But Not Anthracnose on Melon Seedlings

Biopesticides may be useful to prevent fungal foliar diseases on cucurbit seedlings in greenhouses because of the short re-entry intervals, normally 4 h. Bacillus subtilis QST 713 (Serenade ASO), root extract of Reynoutria sachalinensis (Regalia), hydrogen dioxide (Oxidate), paraffinic oil (JMS Stylet Oil), polyoxin D (Oso), and 92% edible fish oil + 5% sesame oil (Organocide) were evaluated against gummy stem blight on muskmelon seedlings and anthracnose on watermelon seedlings. Polyoxin D applied alone, B. subtilis QST 713 followed by polyoxin D, and R. sachalinensis extract followed by B. subtilis QST 713 reduced the severity of gummy stem blight and were as effective as mancozeb. None of the biopesticides applied alone or sequentially were effective against anthracnose. Polyoxin D could be used to prevent outbreaks of gummy stem blight on watermelon and muskmelon seedlings grown for use as transplants. Accepted for publication 1 July 2016. Published 4 August 2016.

Dry Heat Treatment Reduces the Occurrence of Cladosporium cucumerinum, Ascochyta citrullina, and Colletotrichum orbiculare on the Surface and Interior of Cucumber Seeds

Dry heat treatment has been identified as a method for disinfecting seed-borne pathogens in vegetable seeds. This study demonstrated that three seed-borne pathogens of cucumber (Cladosporium cucumerinum that causes scabs, Ascochyta citrullina that results in gummy stem blight, and Colletotrichum orbiculare that induces anthracnose) could be effectively eradicated from cucumber seeds by dry heat treatment. In vitro growth of these three pathogens was inhibited by dry heat treatment at 70 °C for 40 min. These pathogens were inactivated after exposing infected seeds to 70 °C dry heat for at least 90 min. Seed infection was significantly reduced by exposing the seeds to 70 °C dry heat for at least 40 min. Seed moisture content and germination were slightly reduced after 70 °C heat treatment for 40–120 min. Seed vigor remained at a high level after dry heat treatment at 70 °C for 90 min. In conclusion, 70 °C dry heat treatment for 90 min was determined to be the optimal method for eradication of C. cucumerinum, Didymella bryoniae, and C. orbiculare from cucumber seeds.

Diseases and Disease Management Strategies Take Top Research Priority in the Watermelon Research and Development Group Members Survey (2014 to 2015)

Watermelon is an important crop grown for its fruit in the United States and many other countries across the world. A survey of members of the Watermelon Research and Development Group was conducted (2014 to 2015) to identify and rank research priorities. Participants were asked to assign a ranking from 1 to 10 for 25 listed priorities with 1 being most important. Priorities were partitioned into five groups on the basis of the results of several complementary analyses. Based on 30 respondents included in the final analysis, diseases and strategies for their management were identified as the most important research priorities. Fusarium wilt and host resistance to gummy stem blight were considered top priorities and were included in group 1. Group 2 included bacterial fruit blotch, anthracnose resistance, Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus, fruit yield, improved post-harvest fruit quality, and powdery mildew. Group 3 included seedless pollination, Phytophthora fruit rot, seedless hybrid production, hollow heart, downy mildew, firm flesh, and sugar content. Grafting methods, various viral diseases, and whitefly resistance were included in the 4th group. All write-in priorities fell into the 5th group. The present survey results indicates that research efforts should be directed towards developing solutions for managing important watermelon diseases. Accepted for publication 23 March 2016. Published 29 March 2016.

Two Stagonosporopsis species identified as causal agents of gummy stem blight epidemics of gherkin cucumber (Cucumis sativus) in Karnataka, India

Two Stagonosporopsis species identified as causal agents of gummy stem blight epidemics of gherkin cucumber (Cucumis sativus) in Karnataka, India

Genetic Characterization ofDidymella bryoniaeIsolates Infecting Watermelon and Other Cucurbits in Florida and Georgia

Gummy stem blight caused by Didymella bryoniae (anamorph Phoma cucurbitacearum) is a major fungal disease of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and other cucurbits. Thirty-five isolates of Didymella and Phoma spp. associated with symptoms of gummy stem blight on watermelon, Canary melon (Cucumis melo), muskmelon (C. melo), and winter squash (Cucurbita maxima) from Florida and Georgia were characterized based on morphology on agar media, pathogenicity on 'Melody' watermelon, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence of ribosomal DNA (rDNA), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. All of the isolates were pathogenic on watermelon but differed in virulence. RAPD and ITS sequence analysis indicated genetic variability among the isolates but PCR-RFLP analysis did not show any variability. ITS sequence phylogenetic analysis identified two isolates, DB-05 and DB-33, which had a greater identity to that of D. bryoniae isolates from China (98 to 100% sequence homology) than other isolates from Florida and Georgia (95 to 98%). These two isolates possessed a single nucleotide substitution of A to G at position 131 of the ITS1 region. The study characterized the genetic profile of a collection of D. bryoniae isolates from Florida and Georgia in relation to isolates from other U.S. states and countries.

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Cucurbit Gummy Stem Blight Fungi Based on Microsatellite Markers.

Combining population genetics with epidemiology provides insight into the population biology of pathogens, which could lead to improved management of plant diseases. Gummy stem blight, caused by three closely related species of Stagonosporopsis-Stagonosporopsis cucurbitacearum (syn. Didymella bryoniae), S. citrulli, and S. caricae-is a devastating disease of cucurbits worldwide. Sources of inoculum for epidemics, mechanisms of dispersal, and the mating system of these species are not well understood. To improve our knowledge of gummy stem blight epidemiology, we developed 18 polymorphic microsatellite markers by combining microsatellite motif enrichment with next-generation sequencing. When tested on 46 isolates from diverse cucurbit hosts and regions, the markers were robust for the dominant and widely distributed S. citrulli. Within this species, we found no population structure based on broad-scale geographic region or host of origin. Using the microsatellites, a rapid polymerase chain reaction-based method was developed to distinguish the three morphologically similar species causing gummy stem blight. To better understand dispersal, reproduction, and fine-scale genetic diversity of S. citrulli within and among watermelon fields, 155 isolates from two field populations in Georgia, United States were genotyped with the 18 microsatellite loci. Although dominant and widespread clones were detected, we found relatively high genotypic diversity and recombinant genotypes consistent with outcrossing. Significant population genetic structure between the two field populations demonstrated that there is regional geographic structure and limited dispersal among fields. This study provides insight into the fine-scale genetic diversity and reproductive biology of the gummy stem blight pathogen S. citrulli in the field.

Baseline Sensitivity of Didymella bryoniae to Cyprodinil and Fludioxonil and Field Efficacy of these Fungicides Against Isolates Resistant to Pyraclostrobin and Boscalid.

To prevent yield reductions from gummy stem blight, fungicides often must be applied to watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and muskmelon (Cucumis melo). Didymella bryoniae, the ascomycete fungus that causes gummy stem blight, is resistant to thiophanate-methyl, quinone-outside inhibitors (QoI), boscalid, and penthiopyrad. In place of these fungicides, premixtures of cyprodinil and fludioxonil (Switch 62.5WG) or cyprodinil and difenoconazole (Inspire Super 2.82SC) are used. The objectives of this study were to examine baseline isolates of D. bryoniae for sensitivity to cyprodinil and fludioxonil and to determine the efficacy of cyprodinil-fludioxonil and cyprodinil-difenoconazole against isolates resistant to QoI fungicides and boscalid. Colony diameters of 146 isolates of D. bryoniae collected in South Carolina and other U.S. states prior to 2008 were measured on glucose minimal medium amended with cyprodinil or fludioxonil. Mean effective concentration values that reduced relative colony diameter by 50% were 0.052 and 0.099 mg/liter cyprodinil and fludioxonil, respectively. In autumn 2008, 2009, and 2011, field-grown watermelon inoculated with isolates resistant to QoI fungicides and boscalid was treated with boscalid-pyraclostrobin alternated with chlorothalonil, cyprodinil-fludioxonil alternated with chlorothalonil, cyprodinil-difenoconazole alternated with chlorothalonil, tebuconazole alternated with chlorothalonil, chlorothalonil, or water. In 2008 and 2011, both cyprodinil treatments reduced disease severity compared with the water control treatment and chlorothalonil alone. In 2008 and 2009, cyprodinil-fludioxonil reduced severity compared with boscalid-pyraclostrobin and, in 2008, cyprodinil-difenoconazole and tebuconazole also did. Use of cyprodinil-fludioxonil should control gummy stem blight effectively and may delay development of resistance to cyprodinil and fludioxonil in D. bryoniae. However, because Botrytis cinerea became resistant to both cyprodinil and fludioxonil after multiple applications of cyprodinil-fludioxonil per season, prudent fungicide rotations should be followed when using cyprodinil-containing fungicides against D. bryoniae.

Evolutionary history and variation in host range of three Stagonosporopsis species causing gummy stem blight of cucurbits

Recently diverged species may form complexes of morphologically similar, yet genetically distinct lineages that occur in overlapping geographic ranges and niches. Using a multilocus sequencing approach we discovered that gummy stem blight of cucurbits is caused by three genetically distinct species: Stagonosporopsis cucurbitacearum (syn. Didymella bryoniae), Stagonosporopsis citrulli, and Stagonosporopsis caricae, which had previously been considered only a pathogen of papaya. Experiments showed that all three species are pathogenic to cucurbits in the genera Cucurbita, Cucumis, and Citrullus, but only S. caricae is aggressive to papaya. Species tree estimates show that S. citrulli and S. cucurbitacearum are phylogenetically distinct sister species, and that S. caricae is the ancestral lineage. The time estimate for divergence of S. caricae from the ancestor of S. cucurbitacearum and S. citrulli at 72 900 YBP pre-dates domestication of papaya and Cucurbita species in the American tropics. The divergence estimate observed for S. cucurbitacearum and S. citrulli at 10 900 YBP suggests that diversification of Cucurbita species and domestication of gourds and squashes could have driven their divergence. This work highlights the use of molecular systematics and population genetics to elucidate genetic identity among previously unassociated fungi and to understand the patterns of pathogen diversification.

Didymella bryoniae Isolates from Watermelon Seedlings in Florida Transplant Houses and Their Sensitivity to Boscalid

The purpose of this study was to examine why gummy stem blight was not being controlled in watermelon fields without a previous history of boscalid use and whether boscalid resistance could have originated from the transplants. The study evaluated Didymella bryoniae isolates collected from three Florida transplant houses for resistance to boscalid and compared the molecular mechanism of this resistance to that in the literature on isolates from North and South Carolina and Georgia. Accepted by publication 16 February 2015. Published 25 February 2015.

Allele-Specific PCR for the Detection of Azoxystrobin Resistance in Didymella bryoniae.

Gummy stem blight (GSB), caused by the fungus Didymella bryoniae, is considered the most widespread and destructive disease of watermelon in the southeastern United States. The quinone outside-inhibiting (QoI) fungicide azoxystrobin (AZO), which inhibits mitochondrial respiration by binding to the outer, quinone-oxidizing pocket of the cytochrome bc1 (cyt b) enzyme complex, was initially very effective in controlling GSB. However, resistance to AZO has been observed in D. bryoniae in many watermelon-producing regions. In this study, the DNA sequences of partial cyt b genes of four AZO-resistant (AZO-R) and four AZO-sensitive (AZO-S) isolates of D. bryoniae confirmed the amino acid substitution of glycine by alanine at the 143 codon (G143A) in the AZO-R isolates tested. Allele-specific primers were designed to detect the resistant or sensitive allele at codon 143 of the cyt b gene, which amplified a 165-bp polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product from genomic DNA of nine AZO-R and nine AZO-S isolates of D. bryoniae, respectively. The primer pairs did not amplify DNA from other pathogens tested in the study. The results indicated that the PCR assays developed in the study were specific in differentiating AZO-R and AZO-S isolates and could facilitate AZO resistance detection in D. bryoniae.

Reproduction of Didymella bryoniae on Nine Species of Cucurbits Under Field Conditions

Eighteen cucurbit cultivars representing 5 genera, 9 species, and 11 taxa susceptible to gummy stem blight were inoculated with Didymella bryoniae in field plots in Charleston, SC, in autumn 2008, autumn 2009, and spring 2011 to determine the suitability of the hosts and various plant parts for formation of sexual and asexual fruiting bodies of the pathogen. In 1, 2, or 3 years, D. bryoniae reproduced on all 18 cultivars, on leaves, and on all plant parts examined-pedicles, peduncles, petioles, tendrils, and vines. Watermelon and citron (both Citrullus lanatus) and melon (Cucumis melo) had significantly more leaves with fruiting bodies than cucumber (Cucumis sativus), bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), and eight cultivars of squash and pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo). On plant parts other than leaves, melon had the greatest proportions of tissue pieces with fruiting bodies, and citron had the least. Fruiting bodies were observed on 86% of plant parts examined in autumn 2009 but on only 28% in spring 2011, when environmental conditions were hot and dry. In 2009, pseudothecia and pycnidia were found in equal proportions on leaves, but pseudothecia were found more frequently than pycnidia on leaves in 2011 and on other plant parts in 2009 and 2011.

Identification and Characterization of the Causal Agent of Gummy Stem Blight from Muskmelon and Watermelon in East China

AbstractGummy stem blight (GSB) is one of the most destructive foliar diseases of cucurbits, worldwide. To identify and characterize the pathogen which causes GSB on watermelon and muskmelon in East China, morphological characteristics, pathogenicity assays as well as sequence characterization of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) were performed on 41 isolates collected from Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui and Jiangxi provinces. The mycelia of all the isolates were white on top and olivaceous green to black with concentric circles at the bottom on potato‐dextrose agar medium. The isolates differed significantly on aggressiveness based on pathogenicity assays. rDNA‐ITS sequences and phylogenetic analysis confirmed the isolates as Didymella bryoniae. The isolates were found to be highly identical with the exception of 13 isolates, which had a guanine substitution instead of adenine at position 131 of the ITS.

Evidence for fungicide-resistant seed-borne inoculum for gummy stem blight of watermelon

Evidence for fungicide-resistant seed-borne inoculum for gummy stem blight of watermelon

Differential Susceptibility of Nine Cucurbit Species to the Foliar Blight and Crown Canker Phases of Gummy Stem Blight.

Eighteen cucurbit cultivars representing five genera, nine species, and 17 horticultural types were inoculated with Didymella bryoniae in field plots in Charleston, SC, in autumn 2008, autumn 2009, and spring 2011 to determine susceptibility to gummy stem blight. In each year, gummy stem blight cankers occurred more frequently on crowns or main stems of 'Athena' muskmelon (Cucumis melo) and 'Green Striped Cushaw' squash (Cucurbita argyrosperma) than on all other cultivars except 'Rocio' honeydew (Cucumis melo) in 2009, and bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) and Ojakkyo citron (Citrullus lanatus var. citroides) in 2011. Cucurbita moschata was highly resistant to stem cankers. Severity of gummy stem blight on foliage was moderate to severe in autumn 2009, mild to severe in autumn 2008, and very mild in spring 2011 (due to unusually dry weather). Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus) and melon were the most susceptible to foliar blight in 2008 and 2009. In all 3 years, 'Cheese' and 'Bugle' squash (both Cucurbita moschata), and 'Judgment III' and 'Lioness' summer squash (C. pepo) were among the cultivars with the least diseased leaf area. C. moschata, C. pepo, C. maxima, and Luffa cylindrica (smooth loofah) were significantly less susceptible to foliar blight than Cucumis melo and three Citrullus lanatus cultivars in 2008 and 2009. This study also is the first documentation of susceptibility of Cucurbita argyrosperma to gummy stem blight.

Susceptibility of Cucurbit Rootstocks to Didymella bryoniae and Control of Gummy Stem Blight on Grafted Watermelon Seedlings with Fungicides

Seedlings of watermelon are susceptible to Didymella bryoniae, the cucurbit pathogen that causes gummy stem blight, particularly when they are grown in the greenhouse for use as transplants. Seedlings of bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) and interspecific hybrid squash (Cucurbita moschata × C. maxima) that are used as rootstocks for grafting watermelon are susceptible to gummy stem blight when wounded. Nonwounded rootstock seedlings of both genera were as susceptible to gummy stem blight as seedless watermelon. Because grafted plants must be misted or held at high relative humidity for 1 week so the graft union will heal, fungicides may be necessary to manage gummy stem blight under these disease-conducive environmental conditions. Nine fungicides were applied as foliar treatments at labeled rates per 467 liters/ha water to nongrafted seedlings of watermelon and five rootstock cultivars. Fluopyram + tebuconazole injured all five bottle gourd and hybrid squash cultivars and stunted watermelon and hybrid squash seedlings. Cyprodinil + difenoconazole injured all five rootstock cultivars and watermelon. Tebuconazole stunted bottle gourd and watermelon seedlings. Four of the five fungicides that were not phytotoxic reduced incidence and severity of gummy stem blight on seedless watermelon grafted onto bottle gourd Emphasis and hybrid squash Strong Tosa. Difenoconazole and cyprodinil were more effective than mancozeb or cyprodinil + fludioxonil, which were more effective than thiophanate-methyl, which was not significantly different from the water control (P = 0.01). Nongrafted watermelon seedlings and watermelon seedlings grafted onto watermelon as the rootstock were as susceptible to gummy stem blight as watermelon seedlings grafted onto cucurbits. Although difenoconazole and cyprodinil are not registered currently on cucurbits, transplant growers can apply mancozeb or cyprodinil + fludioxonil to manage gummy stem blight on watermelon and rootstock seedlings during greenhouse production.

Characters of compost teas from different sources and their suppressive effect on fungal phytopathogens

Compost teas (CT) are fermented watery extracts of composted materials that are used to control plant diseases and on crop fertilization. In this work, aerated (ACT) and non-aerated compost teas (NCT) were obtained from four different composts: spent mushroom substrate compost, grape marc compost, greenhouse horticultural crop residues compost, and vermicompost. Physico-chemical and microbiological analysis were carried out to determine their properties. In vitro assays were performed to assess their suppressive effect on the mycelial growth of eight fungal phytopathogens. In vivo trials aimed to assess their effect on gummy stem blight (Didymella bryonae) and powdery mildew (Podosphaera fusca) in melon plants. Results showed that ACT and NCT filtrates inhibited the in vitro growth of all tested pathogens while autoclaved CT did not completely lose their inhibitory effect, and CT sterilized by microfiltration had no effect on the pathogen growth. The severity of powdery mildew was highly reduced by ACT and NCT from all sources, though in gummy stem blight assay only a delay in disease development was observed. In general, all compost teas showed a high level of microbial populations and nutrients. Results suggest that the efficacy of ACT and NCT firstly depend on the microbiota present in them. We consider compost teas from the four tested sources as a viable way to manage plant diseases and crop fertilization, throughout its integration in pest management programs and fertirrigation systems under different dilution rates.

Manejo da adubação potássica e da irrigação no progresso de doenças fúngicas e produtividade da melancia

Entre as principais doenças da melancia, o crestamento gomoso do caule (Didymella bryoniae) e o míldio (Pseudoperonospora cubensis) se destacam devido às grandes perdas que causam na produtividade e qualidade de frutos. Para investigar a influência da adubação potássica no progresso do crestamento gomoso e na produtividade da melancia e a influência da lâmina de água e do intervalo de irrigação no progresso do míldio, foram conduzidos dois ensaios em condições de campo em Gurupi-TO, nos anos de 2009 e 2010. O ensaio I foi conduzido em blocos ao acaso e os tratamentos se constituíram em três doses de potássio aplicadas em cobertura (0, 50 e 100 kg ha-1 de KCl) e 12 repetições, sendo avaliada a severidade do crestamento gomoso, por meio de uma escala de notas e os dados de produção e qualidade dos frutos. No ensaio II, utilizou-se o delineamento em blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições, em esquema fatorial de 3 x 3, três lâminas de irrigação (100, 300 e 500 mm de água durante o ciclo da cultura) e três intervalos de irrigação. Avaliou-se além da severidade do míldio, também a produção e a qualidade dos frutos. Constatou-se que as doses de potássio não influenciaram no progresso do crestamento gomoso e no número, peso médio e qualidade dos frutos. As lâminas de irrigação aplicadas influenciaram no progresso do míldio. Maiores níveis de severidade do míldio foram observados nas plantas mantidas sob irrigação com lâmina de 500 mm de água. As lâminas de água aplicadas também influenciaram significativamente na produção e qualidade dos frutos. Observou-se a presença de maior número de frutos deformados ou tortos nas plantas mantidas sob déficit hídrico, na lâmina de 100 mm. As maiores produtividades comerciais e totais foram obtidas nas plantas irrigadas com a lâmina de 500 mm de água.