Suez Rift Research Articles

Continental intraplate volcanism in the Sinai subplate: The Oligo-Miocene basalts of the Gulf of Suez rift

Three major Oligo-Miocene basaltic occurrences in Sinai, along the eastern side of the Gulf of Suez rift (Wadi Tayiba, Wadi Matulla and Gabal Abu Durba), have been chosen to reveal the geochemistry and petrogenesis of the magmatism associated with this newly-formed continental rift. They include rift-related basaltic/doleritic dikes and sills and isolated basaltic lava flows, belonging to a prolonged persistent magmatic event occurred around 20 Ma, that crosscut older Phanerozoic strata and Precambrian basement. The Gulf of Suez rift (GSR) volcanics show confined range of SiO2 contents (47.51–52.25 wt%) and Mg# values (31–48) and consist of alkaline basalts, hawaiites, mugearites and transitional tholeiitic basalts. All of the investigated basaltic samples possess explicit Fe-enrichment and sodic nature and are silica-oversaturated (quartz-normative) and metaluminous (diopside-normative and have NK/A<1 and A/CNK <1). The compatible transition elements Ni (9–69 ppm), Cr (14–123 ppm), V(237–453 ppm), Sc (19–43 ppm) are generally depleted relative to primitive lavas, consistent with the evolved nature of these basalts (e.g. low Mg# (<68) and silica-oversaturation). Conversely, these basalts show strong enrichment of most of the incompatible LIL and HFS elements relative to primitive mantle, analogous to ocean island basalts. The GSR basalts have suffered minimal degree of crustal contamination, which was likely a minor contribution from the lower crust that superimposed on crystal fractionation. The Nb/Ta and Zr/Hf ratios of the studied basalts are comparable to those of OIB and enriched MORB and are suggestive of their derivation from mantle source. The GSR basalts were most probably derived via partial melting of quite deep asthenosphere (>70 km) amphibole-bearing garnet peridotite mantle source.

Fault-controlled dolomitization in a rift basin

Abstract There are numerous examples of fault-controlled, so-called hydrothermal dolomite (HTD), many of which host economic mineral deposits or hydrocarbons, but there remains a lack of consensus as to how they form. In particular, multiple phases of diagenetic overprinting can obscure geochemical fingerprints. Study of a Cenozoic succession with a relatively simple burial history here provides new insights into the development of differentially dolomitized beds. The Hammam Faraun fault (HFF) block within the Suez Rift, Egypt, hosts both massive and stratabound dolostone bodies. Non-fabric-selective massive dolostone is limited to the damage zone of the fault, while fabric-selective stratabound dolostone bodies penetrate nearly 2 km into the footwall. Oligo-Miocene seawater is interpreted to have been drawn down discrete faults into a deep aquifer and convected upwards along the HFF. Escape of fluids from the incipient HFF into the lower Thebes Formation led to differential, stratabound dolomitization. Once the HFF breached the surface, fluid circulation focused along the fault plane to form younger, massive dolostone bodies. This study provides a snapshot of dolomitization during the earliest phases of extension, unobscured by subsequent recrystallization and geochemical modification. Contrary to many models, stratabound dolomitization preceded non-stratabound dolomitization. Fluids were hydrothermal, but with little evidence for rapid cooling and brecciation common to many HTD bodies. These results suggest that many of the features used to interpret and predict the geometry of HTD in the subsurface form during later phases of structural deformation, perhaps overprinting less structurally complex dolomite bodies.

Deformation bands in normal fault damage zones, Southwestern Sinai, Suez rift, Egypt

The present study provides evidence that the NW-SE normal faults in Nubian Sandstone reservoirs (Malha and Naqus formations) are surrounded by damage zones in which the rocks are affected by cataclastic deformation bands and small scale faults. The paleostress analysis of the small faults indicates that σ3 has NE-SW direction while σ1 is sub-vertical. The thickness of the bands is ranging from 3 mm to 1 cm. The density and thickness of the bands increase toward the faults and decrease backward. The deformation bands form two prominent sets. The first set is running in the NW-SE direction parallel to the main faults and dip towards the northeast and southwest, i.e. synthetic and antithetic conjugate sets. The second set has NE-SW direction and dip mainly in the NW in the Malha Formation and in the SE in Naqus Formation. The two sets of deformation bands mutually crosscut each other, suggesting that both sets developed during the same deformation event. The deformation bands are planar features and occur singly or form braided clusters. The microscopic studies indicate that the host rock is mainly quartz arenite and composed of fine to very fine, well sorted quartz grains which weakly fractured and cemented by calcite. The microscopic studies of the bands indicate that they composed of strong grain crushing (cataclasis) and clay minerals. This composition is probably causes reduction of porosity and permeability within the deformation bands. The reservoir rocks in the damage zones of the normal faults are divided into polygonal areas by the deformation bands.

Extension-related buttress-like folds, the western side of the Gulf of Suez rift, Egypt

The wedge-shaped St. Paul block, western side of the Gulf of Suez rift, exposes Late Cretaceous beds that are folded into transverse folds. The block is bounded from the east and west by east- and southeast-dipping rift-related normal faults, respectively. This study reveals that the transverse folds are extension-related, and formed due to the buttress-like effect that was created during the movement along the rift-related normal faults. The more competent Eocene hanging-wall block of the N–S-striking fault buttressed against the moving less competent Cretaceous hanging-wall block of the NE–SW-striking fault. A localized zone of shortening developed between the two fault trends causing the intervening wedge-shaped block to be crumpled and folded into a series of kilometer-scale, gentle SSE-plunging folds. The buttressing, within block internal localized strain caused by the zigzag geometry of the NE–SW-striking fault, and the effect of the minor cross fault explain the SSE-to-ESE plunges of the mesoscopic folds. This study turns the attention to the buttress-like effect as one of the mechanisms of extension-related folds during rifting.

Earthquake source characterization, moment tensor solutions, and stress field of small-moderate earthquakes occurred in the northern Red Sea Triple Junction

We estimated moment tensor and centroid depth of eight small/moderate local earthquakes occurred between 2011 and 2013 in the northern Red Sea Triple Junction using a moment tensor inversion of near-source waveform data recorded by very broadband stations of the Egyptian National Seismic Network (ENSN). We also estimated the focal mechanism using the P-wave polarity data set and then compared it with the moment tensor inversion results. The moment tensor solutions are consistent with the focal mechanism obtained from the P-wave polarity data. We also estimated the stress field in the study area using the Multiple Inverse Method (MIM). Our results indicate that the axis of the minimum principal stress is a nearly horizontal NE-SW direction, while the axis of the maximum principal stress is nearly vertical. The direction of the minimum principal stress is consistent with the opening direction of the northern Red Sea zone, where the southern part of Gulf of Suez is currently under an extensional stress field with a NE-SW trending horizontal extension. These results are compatible with the kinematics of the Red Sea-Gulf of Suez rift.

Sedimentary environment evolution in a marine hangingwall dipslope setting. El Qaa Fault Block, Suez Rift, Egypt

AbstractSedimentation in hangingwall dipslope settings is still a relatively underexplored topic in rift basin studies. A better understanding of the evolution of marine sedimentary environments in this kind of settings has to address the variations occurring both along the strike and down the dipslope. Previous work was mainly built on the analysis of subsurface data, relying on the visualization of coarse resolution (10s of m) seismic sections and sparsely located borehole logs (km apart). This study focuses on the sedimentology and stratal arrangement of excellent quality Miocene marine early syn‐rift and rift climax successions continuously exposed for more than 20 km along the strike of the hangingwall dipslope in the El Qaa Fault Block, Suez Rift, Egypt. The integration of traditional sedimentary field techniques and terrestrial LIDAR scanning allowed for a detailed analysis of dip and dip direction for the different depositional units. Three different phases of tilting were identified for the hangingwall dipslope, which controlled the overall evolution of the marine sedimentary environment in the area. The tilt of the hangingwall not only determined variations in facies, thickness and grain‐size of the deposits down the dipslope but also along its strike. The studied exposures of the El Qaa Fault Block dipslope constitute a unique outcrop analogue for marine sedimentation in hangingwall dipslopes.

Fault-controlled dolomitization in a rift basin

There are numerous examples of fault-controlled, so-called hydrothermal dolomite (HTD), many of which host economic mineral deposits or hydrocarbons, but there remains a lack of consensus as to how they form. In particular, multiple phases of diagenetic overprinting can obscure geochemical fingerprints. Study of a Cenozoic succession with a relatively simple burial history here provides new insights into the development of differentially dolomitized beds. The Hammam Faraun fault (HFF) block within the Suez Rift, Egypt, hosts both massive and stratabound dolostone bodies. Non-fabric-selective massive dolostone is limited to the damage zone of the fault, while fabric-selective stratabound dolostone bodies penetrate nearly 2 km into the footwall. Oligo-Miocene seawater is interpreted to have been drawn down discrete faults into a deep aquifer and convected upwards along the HFF. Escape of fluids from the incipient HFF into the lower Thebes Formation led to differential, stratabound dolomitization. Once the HFF breached the surface, fluid circulation focused along the fault plane to form younger, massive dolostone bodies. This study provides a snapshot of dolomitization during the earliest phases of extension, unobscured by subsequent recrystallization and geochemical modification. Contrary to many models, stratabound dolomitization preceded non-stratabound dolomitization. Fluids were hydrothermal, but with little evidence for rapid cooling and brecciation common to many HTD bodies. These results suggest that many of the features used to interpret and predict the geometry of HTD in the subsurface form during later phases of structural deformation, perhaps overprinting less structurally complex dolomite bodies.

Analysis of gravity-driven normal faults using a 3D seismic reflection dataset from the present-day shelf-edge break of the Otway Basin, Australia

The growth, interaction and controls of gravity-driven normal faults is somewhat understudied. Using three-dimensional (3D) and two-dimensional (2D) seismic reflection data, located at the present-day shelf-edge break and into the deepwater province of the Otway Basin, southern Australia, we aim to temporally and spatially constrain the development of a normal fault system and determine the controls on growth. The Otway Basin is a Late Jurassic to Cenozoic age, rift-to-passive margin basin. The seismic reflection data images a gravity-driven fault array, consisting of ten fault segments, striking NW-SE (128-308), located within Upper Cretaceous clastic sedimentary rock. We analyse the growth of a gravity-driven hard-linked fault assemblage interacting with basement normal faults. Our analysis shows that the fault assemblage is linked to major basement faults and displays Turonian-Santonian nucleation, continued growth until the latest-Maastrichtian and a maximum throw of 1.74 km. High variability of throw along-strike and down-dip of the fault assemblage indicates growth via lateral and vertical segment linkage. We interpret that the spatial and temporal evolution of the fault assemblage is the result of rifting basement fault control during Upper Cretaceous resumed crustal extension in the Otway Basin. The control of the rifting basement faults on these gravity-driven normal faults has implications towards the growth and petroleum prospectivity of gravity-driven normal faults on passive margins such as the Niger Delta and Gulf of Mexico, but also towards gravity-driven normal faults developed in supra-salt sedimentary rock in rift basins, such as the North Sea and Suez Rift.

Thermochronometric evidence for diffuse extension and two-phase rifting within the Central Arabian Margin of the Red Sea Rift

Numerical time-temperature models derived from a 2D network of apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He ages reveal a three-stage thermotectonic history for the central Arabian rift flank (CARF) of the Red Sea Rift (RSR) system. The pre-rift Arabian-Nubian Shield existed as part of a passive Paleo-Tethyan margin until a widespread tectonic event ca. 350 Ma exhumed the proto-CARF to mid-to-upper crustal structural levels. After remaining thermally stable through the Mesozoic, the first phase of RSR extension began with a distinct rift pulse ca. 23 Ma when fault blocks across a 150 km-wide area were exhumed along a diffuse set of rift-parallel faults from an average pre-rift flank depth of 1.7 ± 0.8 km. This rift onset age is mirrored in thermochronometric and sequence stratigraphic analyses elsewhere along the Red Sea Nubian and Arabian margins, confirming that rifting occurred concomitantly along the full Red Sea-Gulf of Suez rift system. Diffuse lithospheric extension lasted for 8 million years before a second rift pulse ca. 15 Ma, coincident with regional stress realignment, transferred active faulting basinward towards the modern RSR axial trough. CARF time-temperature models indicate that the prevalent rift style during both RSR extensional phases was one of localized, structurally controlled block faulting and contemporaneous dike injection, not wholesale rift flank uplift.

Early magmatism in the greater Red Sea rift: timing and significance

Throughout the greater Red Sea rift system the initial late Cenozoic syn-rift strata and extensional faulting are closely associated with alkali basaltic volcanism. Older stratigraphic units are either pre-rift or deposited during pre-rupture mechanical weakening of the lithosphere. The East African superplume appeared in northeast Africa ∼46 Ma but was not accompanied by any significant extensional faulting. Continental rifting began in the eastern and central Gulf of Aden at ∼31–30 Ma coeval with the onset of continental flood volcanism in northern Ethiopia, Eritrea, and western Yemen. Volcanism appeared soon after at Derudeb in southern Sudan and at Harrats Hadan and As Sirat in Saudi Arabia. From ∼26.5 to 25 Ma a new phase of volcanism began with the intrusion of a dike field reaching southeast of Afar into the Ogaden. At 24–23 Ma dikes were emplaced nearly simultaneously north of Afar and reached over 2000 km into northern Egypt. The dike event linked Afar to the smaller Cairo mini-plume and corresponds to initiation of lithospheric extension and rupture in the central and northern Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. By ∼21 Ma the dike intrusions along the entire length of the Red Sea were completed. Each episodic enlargement of the greater Red Sea rift system was triggered and facilitated by breakthrough of mantle-derived plumes. However, the absence of any volumetrically significant rift-related volcanism during the main phase of Miocene central and northern Red Sea – Gulf of Suez rifting supports the interpretation that plate–boundary forces likely drove overall separation of Arabia from Africa.

Improving People’s Lives: Minimizing Impact

President's column Last December I had the pleasure of returning to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and touring the giant Manifa oil field. Manifa produces a heavy, sour crude oil from six, long (up to 40 km), stacked reservoirs in shallow water (Arukhe 2014). The shallow waters have abundant sea grasses and corals and are teeming with marine life. Shrimping and fishing are important parts of the local economy. The development of the Manifa field is a fascinating story showing how creative solutions can minimize impact on the environment. Manifa was discovered by Saudi Aramco in 1957. The discovery well targeted both the shallower formations productive in the large Safaniya coastal field and the deeper Arab formations so productive onshore. Neither zone was productive; however, the discovery found excellent productive layers in between, including three that were only produced in small volumes onshore and three that had never before proved productive. The heavy, sour crude was similar to Khursaniyah, one of the three major types of crude present in large quantities in the Kingdom. Demand was less for this crude than for Safaniya and Arab crudes but the market for heavy sour crudes was improving (Aramco World 1963). The first development was in 1962, and the field was brought on stream in 1964. The field produced for 20 years before being mothballed in 1985 because of low demand (Aldossary 2015). Manifa’s history can be contrasted with that of Prudhoe Bay in Alaska. While specific reserve estimates for Manifa are not public information, both fields are very large. The Prudhoe Bay field was discovered in 1968 and did not begin production until 1977. Prudhoe production peaked at about 1.5 million BOPD in 1989. Prudhoe Bay crude averages 27.6 °API and had a significant domestic market to serve. Manifa crude is 26–31 °API and has from 2.8% to 3.7% sulfur content (Croft and Patzek 2009), with less of a market at the time. It is fairly astonishing that roughly comparable fields would go down such radically different paths. Manifa would remain mothballed until 2006. Saudi Aramco redeveloped the field consistent with a very long life production time horizon for its large reservoirs (Saudi Aramco 2016). But the old way of approaching shallow offshore fields would not be acceptable. The use of jackup rigs in these shallow waters would have required excessive dredging, and the size of the reservoir eliminated the possibility of effective development from the shore. A new approach to development would be needed. A creative plan to develop man-made islands connected by a causeway would allow conventional onshore rigs to be used to develop this offshore field. A long causeway was considered, but early designs would have decreased water circulation vital to distributing nutrients and oxygen vital to marine life. With more than 4 million man-hours of work in the design phase, a solution was developed to build 27 man-made islands connected by 41 km of causeways. To ensure needed water circulation, the causeway does not go all the way across the bay and 14 bridges were built into the causeway to further improve circulation (Aldossary 2015). Production commenced in 2012 ahead of schedule and under budget in a development that earned a UNESCO Environmental Responsibility Award nomination. It is an impressive development of which Saudi Aramco is rightly proud, with eventual production capacity of 900,000 BOPD or more. As our helicopter approached the massive processing facility, I looked at the three large flare stacks. There was nothing being flared. Was the field shut in? No, the design and normal operations of the field use all of the produced gas and creative operations practices mean that almost no gas is flared. Excess electricity produced by the facilities goes into the power grid.

3D seismic analysis of gravity-driven and basement influenced normal fault growth in the deepwater Otway Basin, Australia

We use three-dimensional (3D) seismic reflection data to analyse the structural style and growth of a normal fault array located at the present-day shelf-edge break and into the deepwater province of the Otway Basin, southern Australia. The Otway Basin is a Late Jurassic to Cenozoic, rift-to-passive margin basin. The seismic reflection data images a NW-SE (128–308) striking, normal fault array, located within Upper Cretaceous clastic sediments and which consists of ten fault segments. The fault array contains two hard-linked fault assemblages, separated by only 2 km in the dip direction. The gravity-driven, down-dip fault assemblage is entirely contained within the 3D seismic survey, is located over a basement plateau and displays growth commencing and terminating during the Campanian-Maastrichtian, with up to 1.45 km of accumulated throw (vertical displacement). The up-dip normal fault assemblage penetrates deeper than the base of the seismic survey, but is interpreted to be partially linked along strike at depth to major basement-involved normal faults that can be observed on regional 2D seismic lines. This fault assemblage displays growth initiating in the Turonian-Santonian and has accumulated up to 1.74 km of throw.Our detailed analysis of the 3D seismic data constraints post-Cenomanian fault growth of both fault assemblages into four evolutionary stages: [1] Turonian-Santonian basement reactivation during crustal extension between Australia and Antarctica. This either caused the upward propagation of basement-involved normal faults or the nucleation of a vertically isolated normal fault array in shallow cover sediments directly above the reactivated basement-involved faults; [2] continued Campanian-Maastrichtian crustal extension and sediment loading eventually created gravitational instability on the basement plateau, nucleating a second, vertically isolated normal fault array in the cover sediments; [3] eventual hard-linkage of fault segments in both fault arrays to form two along-strike, NW-SE striking fault assemblages, and; [4] termination of fault growth in the latest Maastrichtian. We document high variability of throw along-strike and down-dip for both fault assemblages, thereby providing evidence for lateral and vertical segment linkage. Our results highlight the complexities involved in the growth of both gravity-driven normal fault arrays (such as those present in the Niger Delta and Gulf of Mexico) and basement-linked normal fault arrays (such as those present in the North Sea and Suez Rift) with the interaction of an underlying and reactivating basement framework. This study provides an excellent example of spatial variability in growth of two normal fault assemblages over relatively short spatial scales (∼2 km separation down-dip).

Fault block rotation and footwall erosion in the southern Suez rift: Implications for hydrocarbon exploration

A dataset in the southern Suez rift including 400 km2 of 3D depth-migrated seismic data, thirty six boreholes with geological information and outcrop data from several exposures, was examined and interpreted in order to understand the controls on the erosion of the pre-rift reservoirs at the updip edges of tilted fault blocks and its impact on hydrocarbon exploration. Surface and subsurface mapping demonstrated the existence of five regional major tilted fault blocks bounded by major down to the northeast, rift-parallel normal faults. These blocks are characterized by steep stratal dip (30–40°) and their bounding faults are dipping at 20–30° toward the NE. The major faults in the area have been subdivided into three phases based on their age. The first-phase faults were formed at the early rift opening phase and were contemporaneous with the deposition of the lowermost syn-rift unit (Nukhul Formation). The second-phase faults are contemporaneous with deposition of the Rudeis Formation (main syn-rift unit) while the third-phase faults are the youngest. Detailed study indicates that the first-phase faults controlled the rotation of the tilted fault blocks and played a major role in the erosion of the pre-rift reservoirs and top seal units at the updip edges of these blocks. The lowermost syn-rift unit (Nukhul Formation) was deposited in the downdip areas of the tilted faults blocks and did not cover the updip eroded areas. A proposed model to demonstrate the risk of drilling the crests of tilted fault blocks close to the main block-bounding faults is described in this paper and can be applied in other highly extended rift basins.

Fracture reopening by micro-earthquakes, a mechanism for oil seepage in mildly active rifts: a case study from Gemsa oilfield, the southern Gulf of Suez rift, Egypt

Episodic hydrocarbon seepage is present at Gemsa oilfield, southern Gulf of Suez rift, Egypt. The occurrence of the oil at this area has been known for thousands of years. The nature and origin of this seepage is the main target of the present study. Surface geological mapping substantiated by subsurface mapping using 2-D seismic lines and well log data are integrated. Moreover, the present day stress orientation and magnitudes are integrated with the mechanical properties of the reservoir rock in order to produce a coherent interpretation for the migration pathways and the main causes of the hydrocarbon seepage. The study revealed that the episodic hydrocarbon seepage at mildly active rifts such as the southern Suez rift can be resulted from the migration of entrapped hydrocarbons along the damage zone of slightly active faults with continuous micro-earthquakes. The pressure released from the micro-earthquakes causes the reopening of preexisting fractures where hydrocarbon found their easy pathway to the surface through highly fractured rocks and unconsolidated sediments. The produced migration pathway map proposes the possibility of an unexplored Hammam Faraun Member reservoir at the study area. The original oil in place of the predicted reservoir is estimated to be more than 22 MMBO which encourages the design makers for more investigation of this reservoir to increase its certainty and putting it in the plan of the future investments.

Architecture of fault damage zones of normal faults, Gebel Ataqa area, Gulf of Suez rift, Egypt

Well-exposed contemporaneous E-W en echelon normal faults and NW-SE oriented normal faults in Gebel Ataqa area (Gulf of Suez) allow comparison of their damage zones. Across all investigated damage zones, the majority of fractures are parallel and sub-parallel to their respective faults irrespective of the regional stress field of the area. Four fracture sets have been recorded across the E-W en echelon normal faults and three fracture sets across the NW-SE normal faults. These fractures form a network by their cross-cutting relationship to generate lithons and rock fragments of various sizes within the damage zones. The area around the fault surface exhibits high level of strain with high fracture density. Fracture spacing increases away from the fault. Fracture density is mirrored across the fault in hanging wall and footwall blocks. The average half width of the studied damage zones ranges between 12 and 14.5 m. Slight change in damage zone width along the fault strike is related to change in throw along the fault.

Pre-salt to salt stratigraphic architecture in a rift basin: insights from a basin-scale study of the Gulf of Suez (Egypt)

We propose a basin-scale (∼300 × 100 km) study of the pre-salt to salt sedimentary fill from the Suez rift based on outcrop and subsurface data. This study is a new synthesis of existing and newly acquired data using an integrated approach with (1) basin-scale synthesis of the structural framework, (2) stratigraphic architecture characterization of the entire Suez rift using sequence stratigraphy concepts, (3) lithologic maps reconstruction and interpretation, (4) isopach/depocenter maps interpolation to quantify sedimentary volumes, and (5) quantification of the sediment supply, mean carbonate and evaporite accumulation rates, and their integration into the rift dynamic. The Gulf of Suez is ca. 300-km-long and up to 80-km-wide rift structure, resulting from the late Oligocene to early Miocene rifting of the African and Arabian plates. The stratigraphic architecture has recorded five main stages of rift evolution, from rift initiation to finally tectonic quiescence characterized by salt deposits. Rift initiation (ca. 1–4 Myr duration): the Suez rift was initiated at the end of the Oligocene along the NNW-SSE trend of the Red Sea with evidences of active volcanism. Continental to lacustrine deposits only occurred in isolated depocenters. Sediment supply was relatively low. Rift widening (ca. 3 Myr duration): the rift propagated from south to north (Aquitanian), with first marine incursions from the Mediterranean Sea. The rift was subdivided into numerous depocenters controlled by active faults. Sedimentation was characterized by small carbonate platforms and associated sabkha deposits to the south and shallow open marine condition to the north with mixed sedimentation organized into an overall transgressive trend. Rift climax (ca. 5 Myr duration): the rift was then flooded during Burdigalian times recording the connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The faults were gradually connected and reliefs on the rift shoulders were high as evidenced by a strong increase of the uplift/subsidence rates and sediment supply. Three main depocenters were then individualized across the rift and correspond to the Darag, Central, and Southern basins. Sedimentation was characterized by very large Gilbert-type deltas along the eastern margin and associated submarine fans and turbidite systems along the basin axis. Isolated carbonate platforms and reefs mainly occurred in the Southern basin and along tilted block crests. Late syn-rift to rift narrowing (ca. 4 Myr duration): during the Langhian, the basin recorded several falls of relative sea level and bathymetry in the rift axis was progressively reduced. The former reliefs induced during the rift climax were quickly destroyed as evidenced by the drastic drop in sediment supply. Stratigraphic reconstruction indicates that the Central basin was restricted during lowstand period; meanwhile, open marine conditions prevailed to the north and south of the Suez rift. The Central basin, Zaafarana, and Morgan accommodation zones thus acted as a major divide between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. During Serravalian times, the Suez rift also recorded several disconnections between the Mediterranean and Red seas as evidenced by massive evaporites in major fault-controlled depocenters. The Suez rift was occasionally characterized by N–S paleogeographic gradient with restricted setting to the north and open marine setting to the south (Red Sea). Tectonic quiescence to latest syn-rift (ca. 7 Myr duration): the Tortonian was then characterized by the deposition of very thick salt series (>1000 m) which recorded a period of maximum restriction for the Suez rift. The basin was still subdivided into several sub-basins bounded by major faults. The basin with a N-S paleogeographic gradient was totally and permanently disconnected from the Mediterranean Sea and connected to open marine condition via the Red Sea. The Messinian was also characterized by a thick salt series, but the evaporite typology and sedimentary systems distribution suggest a more humid climate than during Tortonian times. Pre-salt to salt transition was not sharp and lasted for ca. 4 Myr (Langhian-Serravalian). It was initiated as the result of the combined effect of (1) climatic changes with aridization and low water input from the catchments and (2) rift dynamic induced by plate tectonic reorganization that controlled the interplay between sea level and accommodation zones constituting sills.

Structural evolution and Cenozoic tectonostratigraphy of the Cairo-Suez district, north Eastern Desert of Egypt: Field-structural data from Gebel Qattamiya-Gebel Um Reheiat area

Detailed field mapping reveals that continental rifting is strongly deforming the Gebel Qattamiya-Gebel Um Reheiat area and the entire Cairo-Suez district, in north Eastern Desert of Egypt. Rift-related structures are predominantly represented by E to WNW, NNW and NW oriented faults. The E to WNW oriented faults are small and build up the Gebel Qattamiya en echelon fault belt, whereas the faults trending NNW and NW establish a pervasive horst and graben structural style involving some rhomb-shape horsts as Gebel Qattamiya (GQRH), Gebel Um Reheiat (GURRH) and south Gebel Um Reheiat (SGURRH). Rock units of the Eocene succession and Oligocene sediments are well exposed and highly controlled by rift-related structures. Rifting was developed through two rift-phases; initial and major ones. The initial phase (a newly recognized phase in this contribution) has been occurred in Late Eocene (Priabonian), while the main phase was prevailing during Late Oligocene-Early Miocene time and is characterized by hydrothermal veins and basaltic eruptions. Continental transtension in the Cairo-Suez district, including the study area, was probably synchronous with a major tectonic stage (Pyrenean-Atlasic movement) of continental collision between African–Arabian and Eurasian plates in Late Eocene–Oligocene time.Field investigation suggests that the transfer of displacement (slip) from the Gulf of Suez proto-rift into the E–W oriented faults ‘‘relays’’ is an important mechanism, which helps to explain the current structural framework and tectonic evolution of the Cairo-Suez district. Reactivation of such faults with right-lateral divergent wrenching with NE–SW oriented extension deformed the Cairo-Suez district with several E–W oriented en echelon fault belts (e.g. Gebel Qattamiya fault belt in the study area). Thus the Cairo-Suez district represents an accommodation or transfer zone in northeastern Egypt, intercepting the ‘‘far-field stresses’’ from the Arabian–Nubian Shield, the Red Sea-Gulf of Suez rift and the Maghrebian Shield.

Near-Surface Velocity Model To Enhance PSDM Seismic Imaging of Dukhan Field

This article, written by Special Publications Editor Adam Wilson, contains highlights of paper IPTC 18293, “Near-Surface Velocity Model of Dukhan Field From Multiphysics Survey To Enhance PSDM Seismic Imaging,” by K. Setiyono, Qatar Petroleum; S. Gallo, C. Boulanger, F. Bruere, F. Moreau, and B. Rondeleux, CGG; and J. Snow, Qatar Petroleum, prepared for the 2015 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Doha, Qatar, 7-9 December. The paper has not been peer reviewed. Dukhan field affords an opportunity to assess alternative near-surface velocity-modeling work flows that specifically integrate microgravity (MGR) and vertical electrical sounding (VES). A pilot study of the Dukhan seismic data demonstrates that integration of MGR/VES into prestack depth migration (PSDM) improves the fidelity of seismic images and results in an improved depth match. The resultant MGR/VES PSDM pilot model improved the velocity model between the surface and top Simsima formation on the basis of visible impact on the deeper structure obtained from imaging and better fit between the seismic depth horizons and well measured depths. Introduction The Dukhan field (Fig. 1) along the southwest coast of Qatar is an elongated anticline that has significant hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Jurassic Arab and deeper formations. In 2007, Qatar Petroleum invested in a new full-field, land and shallow-water 3D-seismic survey of the area. Despite considerable and continuous progress in seismic technology, obtaining an accurate, quantitative, well-focused seismic depth image at reservoir level remains challenging. In land seismic, a poor characterization of the near-surface geology is detrimental to the depth imaging of underlying structures. The proper knowledge of the near surface to correct for its perturbations onto the seismic wavefield remains one of the main challenges to be addressed. The near surface influences the kinematics as well as the dynamics of the source-generated seismic waves. Knowledge of the near surface to correct for its induced distortions is critical for a reliable use of seismic images, structures, and amplitude at reservoir level. The near-surface lateral and vertical velocity variations often are not accessible with seismic methods, even to the seismic refraction survey, because their depth of investigation is limited to the top of the shallowest hard layer. In addition, rapid lateral changes and large velocity contrasts are unfavorable to seismic refraction.

Chattian-Aquitanian calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy of the Nukhul Formation in Wadi Baba Section, West Central Sinai, Egypt

The Nukhul Formation crops out in west-central Sinai (Egypt), but its age is inadequately resolved due to the scarcity of diagnostic planktonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossil taxa, and the common occurrence of reworked specimens. The detailed analysis of the calcareous nannofossil content of one section measured in Wadi Baba, located in west-central Sinai, allows identification of 41 calcareous nannofossil species belonging to 18 different genera. Our results indicate that this section spans from Zone NP25 (Sphenolithus ciperoensis) to Zone NN2 (Discoaster druggii), suggesting a Chattian and Aquitanian ages for the Nukhul Formation in the studied section. Eleven bioevents are recognized throughout the studied section which have improved the biostratigraphic resolution attainable using standard zonation. In particular, the following biohorizons are found in the lower part of the succession, within Zone NP25 (Sphenolithus ciperoensis): LCO of Sphenolithus ciperoensis, LO of Chiasmolithus altus, LCO of Cyclicargolithus abisectus, LO of Reticulofenestra hesslandii, LO of Reticulofenestra bisecta, LO of Zygrhablithus bijugatus, FO of Triquetrorhabdulus carinatus, FO of Helicosphaera truempyi, FO of Helicosphaera granulata, LO of Pontosphaera enormis and LO of Calcidiscus gallagheri). Two additional bioevents were detected in the upper part of the Nukhul Formation within Zone NN2: FO of Discoaster druggii and FO of Helicosphaera ampliaperta). These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the Suez Rift System was started in the late Oligocene, as the deposition of the Nukhul Formation was started due to the opening of the Gulf basin during the Chattian. A prominent unconformity surface is traceable near the top of the Nukhul Formation at Wadi Baba section that indicates a hiatus of ca. 2.7 Myr based on the biostratigraphic data.

Crustal and uppermost mantle structure beneath the continental rifting area of the Gulf of Suez from earthquake tomography

Suez rift is one of the active seismic zones in the northward continuation of the Red Sea, as indicated by recent earthquake records from the Egyptian National Seismological Network (ENSN). We present a new model of P and S wave velocities in the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the Gulf of Suez and surrounding areas, including the northern portion of the Red Sea. Using the records from 94 seismic stations, we analyzed ~66,000 P and ~17,000 S wave arrival times from 9700 events. The travel time tomography inversion was performed using the iterative LOTOS code. The spatial resolutions of the derived models were assessed using several synthetic tests. The most prominent anomaly is a sharp high-velocity anomaly beneath the Red Sea, which is observed in both the P and S models at all depth intervals. We interpret this anomaly to be oceanic crust that was formed through extension associated with a dispersed system of spreading centers. Beneath the Gulf of Suez, the upper and middle crusts appear to be strongly heterogeneous and are dominated by low-velocity anomalies, indicative of the continental nature of the crusts. In contrast, at a depth of 30km, we observe a prominent high-velocity anomaly along Gulf of Suez, which is interpreted to be the result of crustal thinning associated with extension between the Sinai block and the African Plate. The thickness of the crust beneath the rift is estimated to be approximately 25km, whereas that in the surrounding areas appears to be 30–35km. In the northwestern part of the area, we observe a low-velocity zone in the middle and lower crusts that coincide with intense seismicity and a well-developed system of recent faults on the surface. This region may mark a possible area of northward propagation of the Suez Rift zone.