Gulf Cooperation Council Countries Research Articles

A Sustainable Water Resources Management Assessment Framework (SWRM-AF) for Arid and Semi-Arid Regions—Part 2: Refining the Conceptual Framework Using the Delphi Technique

In the first paper of this two-part series on the development of a sustainable water resources management assessment framework (SWRM-AF), a conceptual framework for arid and semi-arid regions was developed. The framework, rigorously selected through an extensive literature review, consisted of two main parts: components and indicators. This second paper of the series utilizes the Delphi technique as a participatory method to refine the conceptual framework, working toward a final version. This technique employs an iterative questionnaire through which 60 expert stakeholders from the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries were invited to assess 24 indicators across four components—social, economic, environmental, and infrastructure—and to assign their respective weights. However, while 40 accepted the invitation to be involved, only 33 participated in the first round. This paper identified that 97% of stakeholders in the first round were familiar with sustainability and its three pillars. The final result of the two rounds showed a preference for indicators within the social, economic, and infrastructure components to carry equal weights (i.e., four indicators within each of the three components were assigned 25% weighting each). In contrast, stakeholders identified that indicators within the environmental component should be assigned different weights. Therein, ‘Compliance of wastewater treatment plants with regulations’ and ‘Carbon dioxide emissions from desalination sector’ scored the highest and lowest weightings, accounting for 24.2% and 14.3% of the available weighting, respectively. The validation process resulted in a framework of 17 indicators. Thus, the refined and final version of SWRM-AF is presented and ready for implementation. The next stage of the research, which will keep the audience engaged, is to apply the newly developed SWRM-AF to an arid country and evaluate its effectiveness.

An Exploration of Entrepreneurial Marketing Dimensions and Competitive Advantage in Small and Medium Enterprises

The prime focus of this article was on investigating whether the dimensions of entrepreneurial marketing have any effect on an enterprise’s competitive advantage in small and medium enterprises’ (SMEs’) setting. It further aims to close existing theoretical gaps in the previous literature concerning the scarce empirical studies on entrepreneurial marketing in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries. In order to respond to this gap, a structured survey was designed for obtaining the required data from several owners as well as managers of diverse SMEs in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). After completing data collection, the software of SmartPLS4 was used for validating the hypotheses and drawing conclusions. Based on the analysis, the results exhibited that innovativeness, resource leveraging, and customer intensity positively impact competitive advantage. The analysis also supported that opportunity focus, customer proactiveness, as well as value creation all positively affect competitive advantage. However, risk-taking dimension was found to be an insignificant predictor of competitive advantage. By providing insights into SMEs in the UAE context, this article enhances the prevailing knowledge on the connection among the selected elements of entrepreneurial marketing and competitive advantage.

Assessing the Performance of Gulf Cooperation Council Countries in Renewable Energy Responsible Investment through Using Developed Low Carbon Economy Index

Assessing the Performance of Gulf Cooperation Council Countries in Renewable Energy Responsible Investment through Using Developed Low Carbon Economy Index

Quality of higher education in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries: A review on the progress towards 2030 SDGs

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, including Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman, Kuwait, Qatar, and Bahrain, have significantly progressed in higher education reform programmes. However, challenges remain, such as a lack of uniformity in assessment, different norms for degree recognition, a shortage of regionally relevant research, difficulties in recognizing online programmes, and rising financial costs. These issues may limit the progress of reforms in the region, which is crucial for achieving the SDG 4 targets by 2030. The assessment uses published data and reports from GCC countries and the United Nations Organization to quantify the country’s progress as of 2022. The paper suggests specific actions and initiatives to support progress towards achieving higher education quality SDG 4 by 2030.

The Arab Spring and the Prolonged National Integration in Yemen; a Critical Discussion

This study examines how the Arab Spring affects the national integration in Yemen. Despite the Arab Spring’s bringing forth tangible democratic transitions through inclusive democratic elections in Tunisia and Egypt, it created a social and political divide more than the previous time through diminishing the likelihood of national integration in Yemen. Some scholarly debates ascribe Arab Spring to Yemen’s lagging for national integration. However, others are on the opinion that Yemen never could realize a sustainable national integration due to its going through a perennial authoritarian or autocratic rule like some other Gulf Cooperation Council countries, and a long territorial and ideological division, as well as manifold power-seeking sections. The Arab Spring just exacerbated the remaining disintegration. This study holds on to the latter consideration and firstly, discusses the pre-Arab Spring territorial and political schism in Yemen. Then, it examines facts that triggered political fragmentation and instability in Yemen during and in the aftermath of the Arab Spring leaving little hope for the country to step into a successful national integration in near future. The main aim of this paper is to illustrate how a regional or global event impact potential national integration of a country that is heavily divided socially, politically, and ideologically along with corruption and state controlled civil society.

The Burden Cancer-Related Deaths Attributable to High Body Mass Index in a Gulf Cooperation Council: Results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

BackgroundBMI has been reported to be a major risk factor for the increased burden of several diseases. This study explores the burden of cancer linked to high body mass index (BMI) in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries and assesses the correlation with Socio-demographic Index (SDI).MethodUsing Global burden of disease (GBD) 2019 data, the authors quantified cancer burden through mortality, DALYs, age standardized mortality rate (ASMR), and age standardized DALYs rate (ASDR) across sexes, countries, cancer types, and years. Spearman’s correlation tested ASMR against SDI. The authors estimated 95% uncertainty limits (UIs) for population attribution fraction (PAFs).ResultsBetween 1990 and 2019, all six GCC countries showed increased number of the overall cancer-related deaths (398.73% in Bahrain to 1404.25% in United Arab Emirates), and DALYs (347.38% in Kuwait, to 1479.35% in United Arab Emirates) reflecting significant increasing in deaths, and burden cancer attributed to high BMI. In 2019, across GCC countries, pancreatic, uterine, and kidney cancer accounted for 87.91% of the total attributable deaths associated with high BMI in females, whereas in male, colon and rectum cancer alone accounted for 26% of all attributable deaths associated with high BMI.ConclusionThe study highlights the significant impact of high BMI on cancer burden in GCC countries. Moreover, the study identifies specific cancers, such as pancreatic, uterine, and kidney cancer in females, and colon and rectum cancer in males, as major contributors to attributable deaths, urging targeted prevention strategies at reducing weight and encouraging physical activity could greatly lessen the impact of diseases in the GCC countries.

Reinvestigating the Oil Dependency of the GCC Countries’ Stock Market: A Regime-Switching Cointegration Approach

This paper investigates the asymmetric impact of oil prices on Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) stock markets using a regime-switching cointegration approach with data from April 2012 to April 2022. we postulate that investors consider ups and downs in the stock market index instead of price-earnings ratios in their decision-making process. Our results indicate that investors exhibit more optimism during economic upturns, corresponding to positive oil shocks, than pessimism during economic downturns. The study offers several contributions to the literature: (i) Diagnostic tests affirm that constructing the model based on stock market index movements rather than P/E ratios results in superior performance. (ii) As expected for oil-dependent nations, our model attributes more significant deterministic influence to the oil market and closely tracks the stock market. (iii) The results demonstrate that positive oil shocks exert a more pronounced long-term asymmetric influence on GCC stock markets than adverse shocks. (iv) Dynamic multiplier analysis reveals that oil shocks persist longer in Oman, Bahrain, and Qatar's markets than in the UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait. (v) The stock market in the United Arab Emirates exhibits greater independence from oil price fluctuations, responding modestly, while Qatar and Bahrain markets are more sensitive.

Characterizing Land Surface Temperature (LST) through Remote Sensing Data for Small-Scale Urban Development Projects in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

Characterizing Land Surface Temperature (LST) through Remote Sensing Data for Small-Scale Urban Development Projects in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

Dutch Disease and the Future of the GCC Economies

Dutch disease happens when a country's economy becomes overly reliant on the export of a single natural resource. This can have various negative implications, including the weakening of other sectors of the economy, a rise in the currency's value, and an increase in the cost of living. This research investigates the evidence for Dutch Disease in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations. According to the study's findings, there is some indication that Dutch Disease exists in these nations. The positive connections between gas production, raw petroleum output, and GDP suggest that increasing production of these commodities leads to economic expansion, as measured by GDP. However, the considerable negative link between the percentage of non-petroleum exports and the consumer price index shows that the nonpetroleum export industry tends to diminish as gas and petroleum output grows. The study's conclusions have a variety of ramifications for the GCC countries. For starters, it proposes that the government avoid using oil and gas earnings to fuel excessive government expenditure. That might lead to Dutch Disease and undermine the economy's nonoil sector. Second, the government should adopt initiatives to encourage non-oil exports. This might include initiatives that encourage non-oil exports or aid in diversifying the economy away from natural resources.

Recent Developments concerning the Rights of Migrant Workers and of Women: a Survey of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) States Oman, Saudi Arabia and the UAE

Abstract The survey of the Gulf Cooperation Council states reviews some key legislative and executive measures of particularly the governments of Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in the year 2023 (largely between December 2022–2023). It focuses mainly on the rights of the migrant workers. Further, and in less detail, it also notes some of the developments pertinent to the rights of women. More generally, these rights are less relevant to women who are not national citizens. The GCC comprises six member countries in the Arab-Gulf region: Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, the UAE (it is a federal state comprising seven emirates namely, Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Dubai, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah and Fujairah), Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. These oil-producing countries have a significant proportion of foreign workforce in the population. At 88.1 per cent, the UAE has the highest proportion of migrants in its population among the GCC members (UN DESA, 2020). Foreign workers work mostly in the private sector and are also residents in the host countries. Therefore, a broader spectrum of governments’ measures relating to the issues like labour, entry and residence, and ownership of property or business touch the lives of the foreign/migrant workers or expatriates in the Gulf country. Governments’ initiatives targeting domestic workers are relevant also for women because they comprise the majority in this group. Apparently, the most prolific among the GCC countries in governmental initiatives during the surveyed period is the UAE, both concerning migrant workers and women. The Gulf states appear to have showed more responsiveness to their public image as a few important global events have happened in the region in the past year or discussion was in progress. For instance, the FIFA World Cup 2022 was hosted in Doha, Qatar from 20 November to 18 December 2022. The 28th United Nations Climate Change conference or COP28 was hosted in Dubai, the UAE from 30 November to 12 December 2023. Announced at the conclusion of the competitive bidding process in November 2023, Saudi Arabia has won the bid to host the 2030 World Expo in Riyadh from October 2030 to March 2031.

Assessing the Impact of COVID-19 on Capital Structure Dynamics: Evidence from GCC Economies

This study seeks to investigate the potential effects of the recent pandemic (COVID-19) on capital structure dynamics. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a fascinating topic for this study because of its distinct economic characteristics. The analysis draws upon a cross-country dataset covering 208 non-financial listed firms across five GCC countries, with data spanning the years 2010 to 2022. Capital structure is a dependent variable and is measured by total debt to equity, equity multiplier, and short-term debt ratios, while the COVID-19 pandemic, firm size growth, return on assets, tangibility, and growth were applied as independent variables. Using the generalized least squares (GLS) method, findings demonstrated that COVID-19 has a significant and positive influence on debt-to-equity and equity multiplier ratios but a negative one on short-term debt ratio. Thus, non-financial firms increased their debt financing and transferred debt from short-term to long-term funding. In addition, firm-specific factors, such as firm size, tangibility, and macroeconomic factors, such as GDP growth, positively and significantly impact capital financing. Conversely, profitability has a negative relationship with financial leverage. There is a lack of empirical research on how COVID-19 affects the financial structure of non-financial listed companies in GCC nations. Consequently, by filling the previously specified gaps, this study provides proof to support the idea of using debt financing to raise capital for economic recovery. GCC policymakers need to give priority to ensuring that firms have convenient access to inexpensive finance in light of the financial consequences caused by COVID-19. This will guarantee that companies have the resources necessary to bounce back and support economic growth.

Reconsidering the Long-Term Impacts of Digitalization, Industrialization, and Financial Development on Environmental Sustainability in GCC Countries

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have faced environmental challenges in recent decades. This study aims to identify the contribution of digitalization, industrialization, and financial development to the ecological footprint (EF) in GCC countries between 2000 and 2021. The empirical investigation involves estimating the STochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence, and Technology (STIRPAT) model using the augmented mean group (AMG), common correlated effects mean group (CCEMG) and cross-sectionally augmented autoregressive distributed lag (CS-ARDL) estimators. The findings reveal the existence of long-term linkages between EF and the factors mentioned above. Furthermore, there is evidence that adopting digitalization and information and communication technologies (ICT) improves long-term environmental quality. In contrast, both industrialization and financial development exert detrimental effects on the environment. Finally, the JKS Granger non-causality test revealed that all variables, except financial development, predict environmental degradation in GCC countries. These findings can assist in formulating efficient strategies to reduce ecological degradation and achieve environmental sustainability in GCC countries.

Our Common Gulf Cities: agenda for equitable AEC industries for sustainable urban development

PurposeThis paper delves into the critical role of women in the domains of architecture, engineering, construction and urban planning, particularly within the context of the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) and the imperative of achieving gender parity. Concentrating on the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, this paper explores the profound importance of women as essential contributors to urbanisation and sustainable development. It scrutinizes the existing gender disparities within the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industries; evaluates prevailing women empowerment indices in diverse sectors; and presents a strategic framework for harnessing women’s engagement to cultivate inclusive and sustainable urban cultures in the GCC. This conceptual paper introduces an actionable framework that can serve as a guiding agenda for empowering women in the AEC sectors by incorporating their socio-cultural, economic and ecological contributions towards creating sustainable cities.Design/methodology/approachCentring its focus on Gulf Cities, this paper employs a comprehensive approach to examine the current gender disparities within the architecture, engineering and construction sectors. It probes potential barriers and advocates for leveraging women’s participation to foster inclusive and sustainable urban development in the GCC. The study introduces the Women’s Empowerment Index (WEI) for the Gulf AEC industry elucidating how these measures are translated into a tailored framework.FindingsThe paper presents a practical framework that provides actionable guidance for engaging various stakeholders, including governments, academia and industry players, to empower women within the AEC industries. An “Agenda for equitable AEC industries for sustainable urban development: Our Common Gulf Cities” is culminated in a Women Empowerment Index for the AEC Industry (WEI-AEC) designed to serve as a guidance tool to monitor progress within industry, governments and academia.Research limitations/implicationsFuture research endeavours could advance the framework by conducting institutional support analyses, multi-stakeholder collaboration studies and practical testing of the framework within real-world scenarios.Practical implicationsThe findings of this study can guide and influence a diverse range of initiatives, including policy development, educational strategies, corporate endeavours, awareness campaigns, capacity-building programs, skill enhancement initiatives and knowledge exchange among the Gulf Cooperation Council countries.Originality/valueThis conceptual paper introduces a practical framework that can serve as a roadmap for implementing the study’s potential to shape policies, educational programs and corporate initiatives aimed at advancing both gender equality and the development of sustainable cities.

Glycaemic control among adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries: an updated review.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has become a major public health concern, causing significant disability and death worldwide. Fuelled by a modern sedentary lifestyle and poor dietary practices, T2DM affects at least 10.5% of the world's population. This paper seeks to review the progress made by the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) in addressing T2DM, focusing on glycaemic control proportions and comparing it with the 2015 review. The results indicate no significant improvement in glycaemic control proportions since the last review, with only 9.2% to 56.9% of patients having good control (glycosylated haemoglobin < 7%). However, there are no significant differences in glycaemic control between the GCC countries and other places worldwide despite being considered hotbeds of T2DM. Many factors contribute to poor glycaemic control. Specifically, evidence shows that being overweight or obese is the most common modifiable risk factor for T2DM incidence and poor glycaemic control. The GCC countries have higher rates of obesity. Additionally, poor glycaemic control is mainly related to a lack of adherence to insulin and medication use. Poor diet, rich in calories and low in fruits and vegetables, and a sedentary lifestyle also significantly contribute to poor glycaemic control and obesity. Therefore, to reduce the incidence of disease and improve glycaemic control in diabetic patients, educational programs promoting lifestyle changes should be implemented. Ongoing research is also necessary to assess the trend of glycaemic control and its risk factors in our region.

Institutional ownership and women representation on boards in three different institutional settings

AbstractThis study aims to investigate the moderating effect of country level institutional variables on the relationship between institutional ownership and board gender diversity. Using firm and country level data of three different cultural environments (Gulf Cooperation Council countries, UK, and France) for the years 2018–2019, this study concludes that institutional elements related to women (Women Tertiary education levels; legal support, Economic Participation and culture) create isomorphic pressure on firms that enhance the role of institutional owners in increasing women representation on board of directors. Other governance elements, such as ownership concentration, board independence and board size may indicate governance levels better than board gender diversity in certain institutional environments. The study recommended that board gender diversity should not be a priority for investors and portfolio managers in financial markets where reduced female labor market participation exists. Moreover, quotas may be a good tool for enhancing female representation among boards in contexts that have reduced female labor market participation and high levels of tertiary education attainment to maintain corporate sustainability.

Current practice and safety measures in epilepsy monitoring units in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: A cross-sectional study

BackgroundAn increasing number of Epilepsy Monitoring Units (EMU) display various practices and safety protocols. EMU settings should meet clear, standardized safety protocols to avoid seizure adverse events (SAE). We aim to provide the foundational framework facilitating the establishment of unified evidence-based safety regulations to address the practices and safety measures implemented within the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, EMU directors in the GCC were contacted directly by phone to personally complete an electronic 37-item questionnaire sent via text messages and email. From January 2021–December 2021. ResultsSeventeen EMUs from six GCC countries participated in the study. All EMU directors responded to the study. Twelve (70.6%) EMUs monitored adults and children, five (29.4%) monitored adults, and none monitored children only. The number of certified epileptologists in the EMUs ranged from one to eight per unit. Fifteen (88.2%) EMUs applied a continuous observation pattern, whereas two (11.8%) performed daytime only. The precautions most commonly used in the video Electroencephalogram (EEG) were seizure pads and bedside oxygen in 15 EMUs (88.2%). For invasive EEG, seizure pads were used in 9 EMUs (52.9%), %) and IV access in 8 EMUs (47.1%). The occurrence of adverse events varied among EMUs. The most common conditions were postictal psychosis 10 (58.8%), injuries 7 (41.2%), and status epilepticus 6 (35.3%). Falls were mainly related to missed seizures or delayed recognition by video monitors in 8 EMUs (47.1%). The extended EMU stay was because of an insufficient number of recorded seizures in 16 EMUs (94.1%), poor seizure lateralization and localization in 10 (58.8%), and re-introduction of AEDs in nine (52.9%). All EMUs had written acute seizure and status epilepticus management protocols. A postictal psychosis management protocol was available for 10 (58.8%). Medications were withdrawn before admission in 6 EMUs (35.3%). The specific medication withdrawal speed protocol upon admission was available in 7 EMUs (41.2%). Pre-admission withdrawal of medication demonstrated a shorter length of stay in both video and invasive EEG, which was statistically significant (ρ (15) = −.529, p =.029; ρ (7) = −.694, p =.038; respectively). ConclusionThe practice and safety regulations of EMUs in the GCC vary widely. Each EMU reported the occurrences of SAE and injuries. Precautions, protective measures, and management protocols must be reassessed to minimize the number of SAEs and increase the safety of the EMU.

Readability and banks’ risk-taking behavior: Evidence from GCC

We investigate the relationship between annual reports’ text readability and bank risk-taking in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. We find that easy-to-read annual reports are associated with a higher probability of banks’ insolvency. This finding suggests that banks with higher risks have a greater incentive to reduce information asymmetry, resulting in easy-to-read annual reports to gain the trust of the banks’ investors. The result is also attributable to the fact that GCC banks have a tight culture and formal procedures that bank managers rely upon to manage uncomfortable circumstances like risk-taking behavior. Our study findings also suggest that the traditional dynamics of market discipline theory do not effectively operate within the GCC banking environment. This might be attributed to the inadequate governance frameworks established for these financial institutions.

A framework for eradicating women discrimination in architectural design firms in Egypt and GCC countries

PurposeThis research aims to develop and validate a framework for eradicating women’s discrimination in architectural design firms (ADFs) in Egypt and propose strategies for prospective adoption in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries to increase the transformational impact of women on the architectural and urban developments of the Gulf region.Design/methodology/approachA combined qualitative and quantitative research approach was designed to accomplish four objectives. Firstly, to investigate the nature of business in ADFs, women’s discrimination and policies for gender equity (PGE) in architecture. Secondly, to analyse three case studies to validate the identified causes and impacts of women’s discrimination and examine the role of PGE towards eradicating women’s discrimination in ADFs. Thirdly, to conduct a survey questionnaire with a representative sample of ADFs to investigate their perception of women’s discrimination and the correlation between PGE towards eradicating women’s discrimination in ADFs. Based on the above, the research developed and validated a framework to eradicate women’s discrimination in ADFs in Egypt and suggested strategies for potential application in the GCC countries to increase the transformational role of women in the architectural and urban developments of the Gulf region.FindingsThrough literature review and case studies, the research identified and validated the causes and impacts of women’s discrimination as well as PGE in Architecture. The findings of data analysis showed that the highest-ranked causes of women discrimination in ADFs were “customs and beliefs” followed by “Underestimating women’s work” and “Recruiting males more than females”. Moreover, the highest-ranked impacts of women’s discrimination were “career shift and leaving the profession” followed by “decrease in creativity and innovation” and “decrease in economic growth”. Furthermore, the Spearman correlation test showed that while some PGE were correlated, others were not. These findings helped in the development of the proposed framework and proposed strategies.Practical implicationsThis research presents a practical framework to eliminate women’s discrimination in ADFs in Egypt based on the findings of literature review, case studies and survey questionnaire. The framework explained in a workable way the objectives of the framework functions; activities; tools and techniques; involved personnel and needed resources as well as enforcing mechanisms. It was validated by a representative sample of ADFs in Egypt to ensure its practicability and viability and suggested strategies for implementation in the GCC countries to increase women’s role in architectural and urban development.Originality/valueThe research identified and validated the causes and impacts of women’s discrimination as well as PGE in Architecture. Moreover, the research investigated the perception of women’s discrimination and the correlation between PGE through conducting a survey questionnaire with a representative of ADFs in Egypt. The research tackled a topic that received scant attention in construction literature, especially in Egypt and the GCC countries. The research developed and validated a framework to eradicate women’s discrimination in ADFs in Egypt. It represents a synthesis that is novel and creative in thought and adds value to the knowledge in a manner that has not previously occurred. The research suggested several strategies for the prospective implementation of the framework in the GCC countries as an approach to enhancing the transformational role of women in the architectural and urban developments of the Gulf region.

Acquisition deal characteristics and earnings management: New evidence fromGulf Cooperation Council countries

AbstractIn this study, we empirically investigate the association between acquisition deal characteristics and two forms of earnings management: accruals earnings management and real earnings management. Our focus is on acquiring firms listed in six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Employing a panel data approach to explore these interrelationships, our findings suggest that acquiring companies involved in cross‐border deals tend to resort to accruals earnings management before the acquisition rather than real earnings management. Conversely, acquiring firms engaged in unrelated industrial deals are inclined to employ real earnings management over accruals earnings management. Moreover, our analysis indicates that the extent of acquired ownership acts as an effective tool in mitigating both forms of earnings management. Similarly, cash payment acquisitions emerge as an efficient means of curtailing both accruals and real earnings management. These results underscore that the engagement of GCC acquiring firms in earnings management is influenced by the specific characteristics inherent in the acquisition deals.

An examination of the predictors of change in BMI among 38026 school students in Makkah, Saudi Arabia.

The prevalence of childhood obesity has substantially increased in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries, including Saudi Arabia. The Rashaka initiative is a Saudi national school-based multicomponent intervention that was introduced in the school year 2016-2017 to address childhood overweight and obesity. This study aims to examine the effect of the Rashaka initiative on students' body mass index (BMI) for two academic years (2016-2017 and 2018-2019) and to analyse predictors of BMI change. Secondary data for this pre-post study was provided by the Ministry of Health for 38026 students from 89 intermediate and secondary schools that implemented the initiative in Makkah City, Saudi Arabia. It was analysed using non-parametric tests and multiple regressions at a 5% level of significance. Over 2y of implementation, BMI was reduced significantly across the schools (p < 0.001). Based on the regression modelling, school gender and education stage were found to be the only significant predictors of BMI change. Girls and intermediate schools had greater BMI reductions than boys and secondary schools (p < 0.001 and p = 0.031). This study provides tentative evidence for the effectiveness of the Rashaka intervention in Makkah City. In addition, our study has identified that the Rashaka initiative may require modification to improve its effect on boys and students in secondary schools.