Guineensis Leaf Extract Research Articles

Prenatal Developmental Toxicity and Histopathological Changes of the Placenta Induced by Syzygium guineense Leaf Extract in Rats.

Many of the traditional herbal products are served to the consumer without proper efficacy and safety investigations. A laboratory-based experimental study was employed to investigate the toxic effects of Syzygium guineense leaf extract on the fetal development and histopathology of the placenta in rats. Fifty pregnant Wistar albino rats were randomly allocated into five groups, each consisting of 10 rats. S. guineense leaf extract, at doses of 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg of body weight, was respectively administered to groups I-III rats. Groups four and five were control and ad libitum control, respectively. The number of resorptions, implantation sites, and live or dead fetuses was counted. The weight and crown-rump length of the fetuses were measured. The histopathological investigation of the placenta was conducted. Administration of 70% ethanol extract of S. guineense leaves reduced weight gain and food intake of pregnant rats at p value <0.05. The crown-rump length of the near-term rat fetus was significantly reduced in rats treated with 1000 mg/kg body weight of S. guineense extract (p value <0.05). The plant extract did not affect the number of implantations, fetal resorptions, live births, and stillbirths. The weight of the fetuses and the placentae also decreased dose-dependently. Decidual cystic degeneration was the most prevalent histopathological change observed in a rat's placenta treated with 1000 mg/kg body weight of S. guineense extract. Consumption of S. guineense leaves, especially at a high dose, may affect fetal development. Therefore, liberal use of S. guineense leaves during pregnancy should be avoided.

Evaluation of Analgesic, CNS Depressant and Antidiarrhoeal Activities of Psidium guineense Leaf Extract

a peer-reviewed, open access online international journal which publishes original research papers. The journal welcomes submission from scholars and experts for possible publication from all over the world. The scope of the journal includes: Pharmaceutical research, chemistry and biochemistry of naturally occurring compounds, biological evaluation of crude extracts, ethnomedicine, traditional and complementary medicine, ethnopharmacology, biomedical research, Biotechnology, Evaluation of natural substances of land and sea and of plants, microbes and animals, pharmacognosy, bioavailability, clinical, pharmacological, toxicological studies and pharmacokinetics of phytochemicals, Isolation and characterization of compounds, structure elucidation, synthesis and experimental biosynthesis of natural Product as well as developments of methods in these areas are welcomed in the journal.

Modeling Dialium guineense mediated Zn-nanoparticle growth inhibition on Gram-positive microbes inducing microbiologically-influenced-corrosion

In this paper, the minimum inhibition concentration of Dialium guineense (D. guineense) mediated Zn-nanoparticle material on Gram-positive strains of microbes inducing microbiologically-influenced-corrosion (MIC) of metals, were experimentally studied and with the experimental data subjected to numerical analyses. Four strains of Gram-positive strains of microbes that are known to induce MIC on metallic materials were employed in seeded agar plates and against which different concentrations of Zn-nanoparticle (having D. guineense leaf-extract as precursor) were dispersed. Growth inhibition measurements of the Gram-positive microbial strains were then analyzed via mathematical correlation modeling, analyses of variance and Newton-Raphson methodology for improving details of minimum inhibition concentration of the bio-synthesized Zn-nanoparticle material against the microbial strains. Results from the study are of importance for responsible applications of MIC controlling, and for avoiding inadvertent MIC aggravating, system.

Enhanced Gastric Mucus Production by Syzygium guineense Leaf Extract Mediates is Antiulcer Properties

Enhanced Gastric Mucus Production by Syzygium guineense Leaf Extract Mediates is Antiulcer Properties

Biochemical Effects of Piper Guineense (African Black Pepper) in Female Diabetics: Opportunities for Diabetes Treatment

Objectives: To investigate the biochemical effects of oral doses of Piper guineense (P. guineense) leaf extract on female diabetics using experimental animals.&#x0D; Methods: The animals, albino wistar rats, were divided into six groups (n=7). Animals in group 1 received water and feed only. Animals in groups 2 to 6 were induced with diabetes using alloxan. Methanolic leave extracts of P. Guineense were administered to groups 2 to 4 in 40 mg/kg, 80 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg body weights representing low, medium and high doses respectively. Group 5 animals were treated with 10 mg/kg body weight of Glibenclamide (Antidiabetic drug) and group 6 animals were left untreated. All treatments were carried out orally and lasted for a period of 14 days. At the end of the 14 days, the animals were humanely sacrificed through cardiac puncture and the blood samples collected for the analyses of some liver and kidney function parameters using assay kits.&#x0D; Results: The results showed that the oral doses of methanolic leave extract of P. guineense had no negative alterations on the biochemical parameters analyzed namely, 1) Lipid profile (Triglyceride, Low Density Lipoprotein, Total Cholesterol and High Density Lipoprotein levels), 2) electrolytes profile (Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, Bicarbonate, 3) Urea) and 4) Creatinine levels. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the urea levels of treated animals and marked but insignificant reduction in the total cholesterol level and increase in High Density Lipoprotein at P&lt;0.05.&#x0D; Conclusion and Implication for Translation: The reported antidiabetic P. guineense leaf extract caused no adverse biochemical changes in female diabetic rats. This implied that the extract may not distort the lipid and electrolyte profiles of female diabetics and could be pharmacologically safe in the management of female diabetics. It further implied that the Piper, Uziza, commonly taken after childbirth by nursing mothers in some tropical countries may maintain the lipid and electrolyte balance and consequently, prevent hypercholesterolemia and hypertension.&#x0D; Keywords: • Diabetes • Piper guineense • Lipids • Electrolytes • Methanolic extracts • Black pepper&#x0D; &#x0D; © 2019 Gordon et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Antidiarrhoeal properties of Syzygium guineense leaf extract and identification of chemical constituents in its active column fractions.

Background Syzygium guineense (Myrtaceae) has been used in traditional medicine against various ailments, including diarrhoea. This study was conducted to scientifically evaluate the antidiarrheal effects of S. guineense extract and fractions. Methods An ethanol extract of S. guineense leaves was prepared and tested for its effect on small intestinal propulsion in mice and castor oil-induced fluid accumulation in rats. The extract was also evaluated for its effect on itopride-induced small intestine propulsion in mice. Column fractions were also investigated in rats and sub-fractions were tested for activity on spontaneous contractions of isolated rabbit jejunum. Results The results showed that the extract significantly (p<0.05) inhibited intrinsic small intestinal propulsion and itopride-induced propulsive activity, similar to atropine (0.3 mg/kg) although its inhibitory effect against castor oil-induced intestinal fluid accumulation and diarrhoea was statistically insignificant (p>0.05). Column separation yielded 14 fractions, with three fractions producing significant (p<0.001) inhibition of small intestinal propulsion. Sub-fractions 1, 7 and 16 obtained from an active column fraction also exhibited relaxant effects on isolated rabbit jejunum. Spectral analysis (proton, 13C NMR) of sub-fractions 7 and 16 revealed the presence of betulinic acid, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid in 7 and a mixture of luteolin and friedelane-type triterpenes in 16. Conclusions These findings provide scientific evidence that S. guineense leaf extract possess antidiarrhoeal activity and may be potentially beneficial in treatment diarrhoeal disease. The identified compounds may also be implicated in its antidiarrhoeal effects.

Effect of aqueous ethanol extract of Dialium guineense leaf on diclofenac-induced oxidative stress and hepatorenal injuries in Wistar rats

Drug-induced liver and kidney injuries are threats to public health worldwide, but there are claims that medicinal plants may provide remedy. Protective effect of Dialium guineense leaf extract (DGE) against diclofenac (DF)-induced oxidative injuries to the liver and kidney was evaluated in rats. Extract was prepared by maceration of pulverized sample in a mixture of water and ethanol, filtration, and evaporation to dryness. Eighteen rats were divided into three groups with six rats per group. Group I rats received normal saline, group II rats received 10 mg/kg DF by intramuscular route for 7 days while group III rats were treated with 250 mg/kg DGE orally for 28 days and given DF as group II rats. At the end of treatment, blood was collected from each rat and the serum was separated and used for spectrophotometric estimations of biomarkers of hepatorenal injuries. Liver and kidneys were excised from euthanized rats, homogenized in phosphate buffer and the supernatants used for assays of biomarkers of oxidative injuries. There was a significant (p < 0.01) increase in levels of ALT, AST, GGT, MDA, creatinine, and urea, and significant (p < 0.01) decrease in SOD, CAT, GPx, GST, GSH, and G6Pase of DF-intoxicated rats when compared with normal control. Pretreatment of DF-intoxicated rats with DGE significantly (p < 0.01) reduced the levels of ALT, AST, GGT, MDA, creatinine, and urea, and significantly (p < 0.01) elevated the levels of SOD, CAT, GPx, GST, GSH, and G6Pase compared with DF control. These findings showed that DGE may protect against DF-induced oxidative stress and hepatorenal injuries in rats.

Comparison of inhibitory effect of ibuprofen with Piper guineense Schumach and Thonn. on some reproductive hormones in female rats

The aim of the present study was to compare the inhibitory effect of ibuprofen with oral administration of Piper guineense leaf extract on follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, progesterone and estrogen in female rats irrespective of the estrous cycle. The animals were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 7): group A (control), Group B, 180 mg-kg of ibuprofen, Group C, 200 mg-kg of Piper guineense extract, Group D, 180 mg-kg of ibuprofen and 200 mg-kg of Piper guineense extract. At the end of two weeks administration, rats were sacrificed under urethane anesthesia and hormones measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. Results showed significant reduction in serum follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone following ibuprofen administration in Group B rats at P &lt; 0.05. Piper guineense extract treated Group C rats caused significant reduction in serum luteinizing hormone and progesterone at P &lt; 0.05. In contrast, serum follicle stimulating hormone significantly increased in Group D rats at P &lt; 0.05 whereas serum luteinizing hormone and progesterone were markedly reduced at P &lt; 0.05. Serum estrogen level remained unchanged among groups. In conclusion, results obtained suggested that extract inhibited luteinization of follicles thus could impair ovulation, therefore the extract can be used as oral contraceptive in family planning.

Antimalarial activity of Syzygium guineense during early and established Plasmodium infection in rodent models

BackgroundIn Ethiopia, the leaves of Syzygium guineense have been found useful for the prevention and cure of malaria, and demonstrated antiplasmodial activity in vitro. Nevertheless, no scientific study has been conducted to confirm its antimalarial activity in vivo. Therefore, the objective of the study was to evaluate the antimalarial effect of Syzygium guineense leaf extract in mice.MethodsInoculation of the study mice was carried out by using the malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei. The plant extract was prepared at 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg. Chloroquine and distilled water was administered to the positive and negative control groups respectively. Parameters like parasitaemia, survival time and body weight were determined following standard tests (4-day suppressive, Rane’s and repository tests).ResultsSyzygium guineense crude leaf extract displayed considerable (p < 0.05) parasite suppression at doses of 600 and 400 mg/kg in a 4-day suppressive test with chemosuppressive value of 59.39 and 49.09% respectively. S. guineense crude leaf extract also showed dose-dependent schizontocidal activity in both the repository and curative tests. The extract also prevented body weight loss and prolonged survival date of mice significantly (P < 0.05) at the highest dose employed in the study. Qualitative chemical assay for S. guineense methanolic leaf extract revealed that the plant is endowed with different plant secondary metabolites exemplified by terpenoids, alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, anthraquinones, tannins, glycosides, saponins and phenols.ConclusionSyzygium guineense leaf extract possess antimalarial activity in mice. The test substance was found to be safe with no observable signs of toxicity in the study mice. The results of the present work confirmed the in vitro antiplasmodial finding and traditional claims in vivo in mice. Therefore, Syzygium guineense could be regarded as a potential source to develop safe, effective and affordable antimalarial agent.

Antidiabetic potentials of Syzygium guineense methanol leaf extract

This study examines the effects of a methanol extract of Syzygium guineense leaves in streptozotocin (STZ) - induced diabetes, evaluates its effect on alpha glucosidase and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical. Diabetes was induced in rats by a single intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (60 mg/kg). An oral glucose tolerance test was performed after diabetes induction and repeated after 14 days of treatment with the extract. The extract elicited antihyperglycemic action in diabetic rats evidenced by an improved oral glucose tolerance. A dose of 250 mg/kg of extract significantly (P&lt;0.01, 0.001) enhanced glucose clearance at the end of treatment period and was comparable with metformin, the group also showed increase in hepatic glycogen content by 33.9% relative to the diabetic control. Serum biochemical analysis showed that the extract improved indices of renal and hepatic function by reduction in serum albumin, creatinine, liver enzymes, total and direct bilirubin. Similarly, the extract reduced serum cholesterol, triglycerides and high density lipoprotein (HDL) in a non-dose dependent manner; treatment with 250 mg/kg extract caused significant (P&lt;0.05) reduction of HDL. Groups which received 250 and 500 mg/kg of extract showed reversal of glomerular damage compared with the diabetic untreated group. The extract also exhibited concentration-dependent antioxidant activity (EC50= 0.2 mg/ml) and statistically significant (P&lt;0.01, 0.001) alpha glucosidase inhibitory effect (IC50= 6.15 mg/ml). These findings show the antidiabetic potential of S. guineense leaf extract, likely mediated through its ability to inhibit alpha glucosidase, scavenge free radicals and increase intrahepatic glucose uptake and storage.

Ionic Liquid Mediated Biosynthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Elaeis Guineensis (Oil Palm) Leaves Extract

This study reports that ionic liquid mediated Elaeis. guineensis (oil palm) leaves extract can be used for reduction of gold precursor to obtain stable gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). E. guineensis leaf extract was prepared by using a mixture of distilled water and 2% aq. ionic liquid (1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride) as solvents. UV-vis spectra of reaction medium showed surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak (λmax) at 539-557nm confirm formation of gold nanoparticles. λmax was blue shifted toward 539nm with increase in volume extract up to 0.60ml while further addition of extract in the reaction medium resulted in red shifting of SPR band. Emim chloride functioned as a capping agent and results in synthesis of small size gold nanoparticles. TEM image analysis confirmed that average particles size of gold nanoparticles was 20.09±12.36nm synthesized with an aqueous solution containing 2% Emim chloride as compared to average particle size of 39.60±13.63nm when only distilled water was used as solvent for extraction of oil palm leaves. FTIR spectra analysis of the extracts identified presence of phenolic, carboxylic and amide groups that play important roles in reduction of gold precursor.

In Vivo Antiplasmodial and Analgesic Effect of Crude Ethanol Extract of Piper guineense Leaf Extract in Albino Mice.

Antiplasmodial and analgesic effects of crude ethanol extract of Piper guineense was investigated in mice. The antiplasmodial and analgesic efficacy of the extract was judged on its ability to reduce parasitemia and writhing, respectively, in mice. The antiplasmodial screening involved treating infected mice with 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg body weight of extract while the positive control group was given standard artesunate drug. The analgesic test was carried out by administering 1000, 1500, and 2000 mg/kg body weight of extract to three groups of healthy mice, respectively, after induction of pain with 0.75% acetic acid. The positive control group was given aspirin drug. Parasitemia was reduced by 28.36%, 43.28%, and 62.69% in a dose-dependent pattern in the curative test which was significantly different (P < 0.05) from 96.03% of the standard drug. The reduction of writhing by mice given the extract was also dose-dependent (36.29, 45.43, and 59.07%). Aspirin drug was however more effective (86.36%). The extract was safe at 2000 mg/kg body weight. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins, terpenoids, and coumarins. Result obtained in this study demonstrated the efficacy of ethanol extract of Piper guineense as an antiplasmodial and analgesic agent.

English

The aim of wound care is to promote wound healing in the shortest time possible, and plants are a great source of medicines, especially in traditional medicine. Traditionally, medicinal plants have been used for many years as topical and internal preparations to promote wound repair. This work will give an overview of twelve West Africa medicinal plant studies and their active phytochemicals in direct wound healing. The process of wound healing is promoted by several herbal extracts, which are composed of active agents like triterpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, anthraquinones, and other biomolecules. 55% of overviewed plants contain tannins and we found that 45% of them contain terpenoids. Saponins are present at a level of 36% in these overviewed plants. Finally, we remarked that 80% of plants studied here contain flavonoids. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of flavonoids were believed to be one of the important mechanisms in wound healing and in the presence of tannin it improved the regeneration and organization of the new tissue and hastened the wound healing process. Sterols and polyphenols are also responsible for wound healing due to free radical-scavenging and antioxidant activity, which are known to reduce lipid peroxidation. Cactus extract up-regulates VEGF expression in wounded skin, stimulating in return angiogenesis for supplying nutrients and oxygen for skin regrowth. The expression of MMPs revealed the enhanced healing pattern in the E. guineensis leaf extract treated rats group. In conclusion, biochemically wound healing process is promoted by active agents in herbal extracts and those components act synergistically. Key words: Medicinal plants, phytochemicals, biochemically wound healing.

Evaluation of the antidiarrhoeal activity of the aqueous leaf extract of Dialium guineense in mice

Diarrhoea has been recognized as being responsible for high mortality rate among the population especially in infants. Many cases of diarrhoea are fortunately, acute in nature and respond well to a number of well tried remedies including traditional remedies. The leaves of Dialium guineense have been used traditionally in the treatment of diarrhoea. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antidiarrhoeal activity of D. guineense leaf extract in mice using different experimental model. The results showed that the aqueous leaf extract of D. guineense caused a significant (P< 0.001) reduction in the number of stools and frequency of diarrhoea in castor oil induced diarrhoea in mice. The extract produced significant (P< 0.01) inhibition of intestinal transit with the dose of 400 mg/kg having the highest effect. The extract also produced a dose dependent and significant (P< 0.01) reduction in volume and weight of fluid accumulated in the GIT compared to the control. It was thus concluded that the aqueous leaf extract of D. guineense possesses significant anti-diarrhoeal activity probably due to its effect of decreasing GIT motility and fluid accumulation. Keywords : Diarrhoea; Rats; Mice; Dialium guineense, Castor oil

English

Studies were carried out to determine the microorganisms associated with Jatropha curcas and the effect of selected botanicals crude extracts (bitter leaf: Vernonia amygdalina and Uziza leaf: Piper guineensis) on the inhibition of these microorganisms. The experiment comprised three extract concentrations 20, 30 and 50% and was carried out in a completely randomized design with six replications. Results show that only Rhizoctonia sp., Fusarium oxysporum, Septoria apii and Aspergillus sp. were isolated from seeds and leaves of J. curcas. P. guineensis leaf extract, at 50% concentration, inhibited the growth of these organisms (94%) more than the bitter leaf (V. amygdalina) extract (80%) and similar trend was observed at all levels of concentrations. The high level of microbial inhibition obtained from the P. guineensis on J. curcas would be very useful information in the production of pesticides or fungicides combinations as their effectiveness is higher when combined than when singly applied. It was observed that higher percentage germination was recorded on healthier Jatropha seeds than diseased ones and only Fusarium solani and S. apii were isolated from leaf samples of J. curcas while Rhizoctonia spp. and Aspergillus spp. were isolated from the seed samples that showed characteristic rot appearance. However, few organisms observed in J. curcas showed that the crop does not provide conducive environment for the growth of many microorganisms, and as such possess fungicidal properties. Key words: Micro-organisms, inhibition, selected, natural plants, Jatropha curcas.

In Vitro Antioxidant Activity and Hepatoprotective Potential Of Elaeis Guineensis Leaf Against Paracetamo lInduced Damage in Mice

Elaeis guineensis, a medicinal herb, is commonly used in folk medicine to treat various diseases. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the in vitro antioxidant and in vivo hepatoprotective activity of E. guineensis against experimentally induced liver injury through serum analysis. Serum activity was measured by monitoring the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and billirubin. The extract exhibits in vitro antioxidant activity with an IC 50 value of 814 μg/mL in the DPPH radical scavenging activity and 37.48 μg/mL in xanthine oxidase inhibitory (XOI) activity. The results of the paracetamol- induced liver toxicity experiments indicated that mice treated with the E. guineensis leaf extract (200 mg/kg) showed a significant decrease in ALT, AST, and bilirubin levels, which were all elevated in the paracetamol treated group (p < 0.01). The hepatoprotective action is likely related to its potent in vitro antioxidant activity.

Antioxidant Activity of Elaeis guineensis Leaf Extract: An Alternative Nutraceutical Approach in Impeding Aging

The normal mammalian system had evolved to sustain the production of deleterious free radicals at bay. However, aging had exerted the deterioration of this system, making the subject both susceptible and vulnerable towards exacerbation or occurrence of diseases. Thus, the search for antioxidants begins. Rather constituting as a rich source to Malaysia reservoir, most plants do provide an array of phytochemicals that may contribute to reduction of disease and slowing of aging. Concurrently, the present paper reports on methanol extraction of leaves studied from Elaeis guineensis or commonly known as oil palm leaves. The extract was screened for possible antioxidant activities by 2, 2- diphenyl-β-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging activity (DPPH), xanthine oxidase inhibition (XOI), nitric oxide-scavenging activity (NOS) and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity (HPSA) assays. The total phenolic contents were also determined. The extract exhibits antioxidant activity with an IC50 value of 814μg/mL in the DPPH radical scavenging method, 534.04μg/mL in the NOS assay, 37.48μg/mL in XOI and 1052.02μg/mL by the HPSA method based on the concentrations tested respectively. The amount of total phenolics contents was 0.33mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per gram of dry extract. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) method was used to screen the presence of antioxidant compounds in the E. guineensis leaf extract. While it's too early to extrapolate the results to humans, the research does suggest the potential of E. guineensis as an anti-aging agent not forgetting also its high bio-accessibility and bioavailability throughout the country.

Wound Healing Activity of Elaeis guineensis Leaf Extract Ointment

Elaeis guineensis of the Arecaceae family is widely used in the traditional medicine of societies in West Africa for treating various ailments. To validate the ethnotherapeutic claims of the plant in skin diseases, wound healing activity was studied. The results showed that E. guineensis leaf extract had potent wound healing capacity as evident from the better wound closure (P < 0.05), improved tissue regeneration at the wound site, and supporting histopathological parameters pertaining to wound healing. Matrix metalloproteinases expression correlated well with the results thus confirming efficacy of E. guineensis in the treatment of the wound. E. guineensis accelerated wound healing in rats, thus supporting its traditional use. The result of this study suggested that, used efficiently, oil palm leaf extract is a renewable resource with wound healing properties.

Anti-Vibrio and preliminary phytochemical characteristics of crude methanolic extracts of the leaves of Dialium guineense (Wild)

This study investigated the anti-Vibrio activities of the leaf extract of Dialium guineense on eighteen environmental strains of vibrios. The phytochemical constituents of the extract were also assayed in a preliminary test. The results showed that D. guineense crude leaf extract exhibited anti-Vibrio activities on fourteen out of eighteen environmental strains ofVibrio spp. at a final concentration of 20 mg/ml; the zones of inhibition exhibited by the extract against the test isolates ranged between 12 and 20 mm. Standard antibiotics - ampicillin and streptomycin inhibited the growth of the test isolates with the zones of inhibition ranging between 7 to 35 mm and 10 to 37 mm respectively. D. guineense leaf extract exhibited minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging between 0.313 to 5.0 mg/ml against the Vibrio isolates while the minimum bactericidal concentrations exhibited ranged between 0.625 and 10 mg/ml by the extract. From the preliminary qualitative phytochemical screening, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids and cardiac glycosides were detected as phytochemicals in the crude extract of the plant. The results obtained from this study may provide a proof of the usefulness of D. guineense for traditional uses as folk medicine in the management of various ailments caused by Vibrio spp. Key word: Vibrio, Dialium guineense, minimum bactericidal concentrations, phytochemical.