Growth Status Of Children Research Articles

Anthropometric Measurements and Undernutrition: A Case on School Children of South Tripura, India

Tripura is one of the north-eastern state of India. Studies relating body development through anthropometric measurements relating to general health and well-being in this population are not available. The present investigation was aimed to assess the nutritional and growth status of children of South Tripura using anthropometric measurements. For the present study, 152 students in the age range of 6 to 10 years were selected at random from schools of south Tripura. The subjects were divided into five age groups. Different anthropometric characteristics, viz., height, weight, mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) of the subjects were measured. The general physical status of children was assessed from height for age, weight for age, weight for height and BMI. Results showed that undernutrition prevailed among these children. The average height and weight among children were found to be lesser than the standard recommended by ICMR. The Mid Upper Arm Circumference MUAC of children were lower in both gender-groups when compared with World Health Organization(WHO) standards. The overall frequency of Chronic Energy Malnutrition in boys (BMI < 18.5 kg/m 2 ) was 97.4% and in girls the frequency was 100%. Based on the WHO classification, the prevalence of Chronic Energy Malnutrition among this population was high and the situation may be considered as serious.

Growth and health care status of children under five years old in project counties of Chongqing and Sichuan

Objective To understand the growth and health care status of children under five years old in project counties of Chongqing and Sichuan,so as to provide evidence for establishing scientific and effective measures for health care of children.Methods The non-probability sampling method was used to select the children under five years old from 54 villages in 6 project counties in Chongqing and Sichuan.The parents were investigated by questionnaire;the height(length) and weight of children were examined;and the hemoglobin of 6-35 months old children was determined.Multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the factors influencing the growth status of children under five years old.Results Totally 1 089 caretakers of children under five years old were investigated;82.1%(894/1 089)of them had an educational background of primary school or middle school;and the median net per capita income of their family was 2 500 yuan(RMB) in 2009.For the youngest children in the families,the hospital delivery rate was 86.6%(933/1 077),the colostrums feeding rate was 96.4%(1 050/1 089),and the average of weaning months was(11.6±5.6) months.The prevalence of diarrhea of the children was 19.6%(213/1 089) within the past two weeks,and 264 children had cough(24.2%).A total of 1 197 children under five years old were investigated,the rates of stunting,underweight and wasting were 17.4%(200/1 152),4.7%(55/1 173)and 2.2%(25/1 148),respectively.The underweight rate of boys was significantly higher than that of girls(5.9%[38/645] vs 3.2%[17/528];χ2=4.638,P=0.031),and the wasting rate of boys was also significantly higher than that of girls(3.0%[19/634] vs 1.2%;χ2=4.460,P=0.035).The detection rate of low hemoglobin among the 6-35 months old children was 38.4%(272/709).Multiple variable logistic regression analysis showed that male sex,born at home,and low birth weight might be the influence factors on the low growth status of children under five years old.Conclusion The caretakers of children under five years old in rural areas of Chongqing and Sichuan have a low cognitive level on the health care of children,and the children have developmental delay and malnutrition to various extents.Measures should be taken to improve child health care knowledge and health education.

Growth Curves of Preschool Children in the Northeast of Iran: A Population Based Study Using Quantile Regression Approach

Introduction:Growth charts are widely used to assess children’s growth status and can provide a trajectory of growth during early important months of life. The objectives of this study are going to construct growth charts and normal values of weight-for-age for children aged 0 to 5 years using a powerful and applicable methodology. The results compare with the World Health Organization (WHO) references and semi-parametric LMS method of Cole and Green.Methods:A total of 70737 apparently healthy boys and girls aged 0 to 5 years were recruited in July 2004 for 20 days from those attending community clinics for routine health checks as a part of a national survey. Anthropometric measurements were done by trained health staff using WHO methodology. The nonparametric quantile regression method obtained by local constant kernel estimation of conditional quantiles curves using for estimation of curves and normal values.Results:The weight-for-age growth curves for boys and girls aged from 0 to 5 years were derived utilizing a population of children living in the northeast of Iran. The results were similar to the ones obtained by the semi-parametric LMS method in the same data. Among all age groups from 0 to 5 years, the median values of children’s weight living in the northeast of Iran were lower than the corresponding values in WHO reference data. The weight curves of boys were higher than those of girls in all age groups.Conclusion:The differences between growth patterns of children living in the northeast of Iran versus international ones necessitate using local and regional growth charts. International normal values may not properly recognize the populations at risk for growth problems in Iranian children. Quantile regression (QR) as a flexible method which doesn’t require restricted assumptions, proposed for estimation reference curves and normal values.

Growth status of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus

Background and Objectives:Growth parameters are important indicators of a child's overall health, and they are influenced by factors like blood glucose control in diabetic children. Data on growth parameters of Indian diabetic children is scarce. This retrospective, cross-sectional, case control study was conducted at diabetes clinic for children at a tertiary care center at Pune, to study growth parameters of diabetic children in comparison with age-gender matched healthy controls and evaluate effect of different insulin regimes and age at diagnosis of diabetes on growth.Materials and Methods:One twenty five diabetic children (boys: 50) and age gender matched healthy controls were enrolled. All subjects underwent anthropometric measurements (standing height and weight). Mean height (HAZ), weight (WAZ) and body mass index (BAZ) for age Z scores were calculated. Diabetes control was evaluated by measuring glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1C). Statistical analysis was done by SPSS version 12.Results:Mean age of diabetic children and age gender matched controls was 9.7 ± 4.4 years. Diabetic children were shorter (128.3 ± 24.3 cm vs. 133.6 ± 24.7 cm) and lighter (29.2 kg ± 15.3 vs. 31.3 ± 15.4 kg). HAZ (−1.1 ± 1.2 vs. −0.2 ± 0.8) and WAZ (−1.2 ± 1.3 vs. −0.7 ± 1.3) were significantly lower in diabetic children (P < 0.05). Children on both insulin regimes (intensive and conventional) were shorter than controls (HAZ-intensive −1.0 ± 1.0, conventional −1.3 ± 1.3, control −0.2 ± 0.8, P < 0.05). HAZ of children who were diagnosed at <3 years of age was the least (−1.6 ± 1) amongst all diabetic children while those diagnosed after puberty (>14 years) were comparable to healthy controls.Conclusions:Growth was compromised in diabetic children in comparison to controls. Children diagnosed at younger age need more attention to optimize growth.

Problematic Eating Behaviour in Turkish Children Aged 12-72 Months: Characteristics of Mothers and Children

The aim of this study was to determine prevalence of problematic eating behaviour (PEB), associated risk factors, feeding practices including place of meal, variety of diet, and habits of consuming junk food, the mothers' perception of the child growth status in comparison to his/ her peers, and the effects on anthropometric measurements. This study was carried out among children aged 12-72 months who attended the outpatient clinic in the Ihsan Dogramaci Children's Hospital between February-June 2007. Three hundred and thirty-one mothers of children were asked to complete an extensive questionnaire covering socio-demographic characteristics and their child's general eating behaviour and feeding practices at mealtimes. Children with PEB were identified based on their mothers' statements. Three hundred and thirty-one cases were 3.32 +/- 1.39 years old. One hundred thirty-five mothers reported having a child with PEB. The mothers described the children's problematic behaviour as: need to walk around with the child during mealtime (45.6%), watching TV during meals (41.9%), picky or fussy eating (39%), vomiting and/or retching (25.7%), retaining food in the mouth for a long time (20.6%), and not eating solid foods (11.8%). In children who had ate neither meat nor vegetables and fruits, took cod-liver oil-containing supplement during the course of the study, and had taken iron supplements in the first year of life, PEB was more frequent than in others. The mean z scores of weight for age (WAZ) were significantly lower in cases with PEB than without PEB. Counselling and supporting of the mother/caregiver could alleviate the effect of inappropriate solutions taken by families. Insistence on composing of the diet variety including especially vegetables, fruits and meat may be promoted by provision of alternative cooking/presentation samples to mothers of children who refuse some foods. Pediatricians should be alerted that lower WAZ values may be a warning indicating a problem which may cause stagnated growth in children with PEB.

Growth status among low‐income Mexican and Mexican‐American elementary school children

Childhood obesity remains a problem among Latino children in the United States. Acculturation to an American diet and sedentary lifestyle may be causative factors. The research purpose was to assess child growth status, including sitting height, in relation to acculturation among Mexican and Mexican-American children. Anthropometric measures of weight, height, and sitting height were taken in a cross-sectional survey of Mexican and Mexican-American elementary school children (N = 484) in Phoenix, Arizona. Height-for-age (HAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ), and body mass index (BMI) Z-scores were calculated based on the Centers for Disease Control 2000 growth reference. Sitting height Z-scores (SHZ) were determined from the NHANES III reference values. Questions about language usage were asked of the children as a proxy for acculturation. Differences in growth measures and acculturation between those born in the United States or Mexico were evaluated by chi-square or t-tests. The mean HAZ value (-0.23) was close to the reference median. There were no significant differences in HAZ or SHZ by birth country or gender. WAZ values for boys were significantly higher than for girls. More girls (64%) than boys (54%) had normal BMIs. More Mexican-born boys (28%) were obese than Mexican-born girls (17%; P = 0.026) in comparison to the US-born boys (31%) and girls (24%; P = n.s.). Acculturation scale score and male gender predicted a small percentage of the variation in BMIZ. Environmental and cultural factors that promote obesity among low-income Mexican and Mexican-American children are similar regardless of birth country but boys may be at greater risk of obesity than girls.

ZINC, IGF‐1, AND FOOD INTERVENTION IN MALNOURISHED PREGNANT WOMEN ON CHILDREN BODY HEIGHT AFTER 6 YEARS IN INDONESIA

This study is to investigate effects of zinc and food supplementation on malnourished pregnant women to child body height after 6 years old in Takalar district, Indonesia. Cohort retrospective as a design study (subjects was from double blind study 2003). Samples were children 6 years old, divided into three groups: (1) had zinc, food supplementation history (54 subject), (2) group had food supplementation (20 subject), (3) without zinc and food supplementation (50 subject). Child Growth status is calculated by Marshall and Schwan formula.The study showed, average of weight gain during 6 years period for boys in group one, two and three were 0.181, 0.181, and 0.177 respectively. For girls were 0.177, 0.169, and 0.168. Children born from mother with zinc and food supplementation had high zinc and IGF‐1 level compared without zinc or food supplement history. The average of height gain (cm/month) for boys in group 1, 2 and 3 were 0,786, 0,786 and 0,773 respectively. For girls were 0.791, 0.739 and 0,672. There were no significant differences of food intake for child growth (weight and height gain status). Rate of weight and height growth of children in group 1 and 2 were better and higher than children in group 3.Nutrition intervention for malnourished pregnant women continuously (zinc and food supplementation) to prevent growth retardation in children is needed.

Comparison of growth and nutritional evolution stages in infants with working mothers and infants with housewife mothers in Isfahan

Background:Studies have shown that the growth status of the children with working mothers is about 2 standard deviations lower than that of the children of housewife mothers. It seems that absence of mothers in the second stage of nutritional evolution (attachment), which is a very sensitive stage, has an important role in initiating and continuation of an appropriate supplemental feeding.Materials and Methods:In this cross-sectional study, 50 children of working mothers and 50 children of housewife mothers were selected by non-probable consecutive sampling method. Growth charts of the children in the two studied groups were assessed within seven age groups. Knowledge and attitude of the mothers regarding nutritional evolution stages in the two studied groups were assessed Obtained data were analyzed using Software SPSS18 and statistical tests such as chi-square, t-test, and Mann–Whitney test.Results:Growth monitoring charts of the infants with housewife mothers were better than those of infants with working mothers in three out of seven age groups (12–18, 18–24, and 24–30 months) (P=0.02). Mean of knowledge and performance of the mothers about nutritional evolution stages was not significant in the two studied groups (P>0.05).Conclusion:This study showed that growth status of children with housewife mothers in their second year of life was better than that of children with working mothers. Awareness and knowledge of the mothers about nutritional evolution stages and education of mothers about appropriate behaviors in each stage helped them to recognize the children's needs and did their best for their children.

A Retrospective Evaluation of Growth Status in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Referred for Dietary Consultation

A Retrospective Evaluation of Growth Status in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Referred for Dietary Consultation

Growth standards for children's weight of 12 ethnic groups in Myanmar and Thailand

The growth status of children is influenced by many factors, and especially differences in ethnic groups has a large. If possible, it would be ideal to evaluate children's growth and nutrition based on growth standards specific to their particular ethnic group. We present the result of our scientific research in Myanmar and Thailand ; Growth Standards for Children's Weight of 12 Ethnic Groups in Myanmar and Thailand. This research was carried out as part of two large-scale research development projects : Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology's “International Cooperation Initiative” and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science's “Asia and Africa Science Platform Program”.With this project, we selected 12 major ethnic groups, Akha, Chin Ho, Hmong, Karen, Lahu, Lisu, Thai, in Thailand and Burmese, Kayin, Mon, Paoh, and Shan in Myanmar, in the two countries and succeeded in creating standards specific to each group. To purpose of this paper, we used the LMS method.The LMS method and maximum penalized likelihood estimation yielded percentiles in terms of three age-sex-specific curves. For each age group and sex, age was assigned to the x-axis and standardized weight values to the y-axis, giving the growth curves in Figures 2∼19.As always, physical growth research is a response to a practical need such as the one demonstrated here, and is indispensable to both international cooperation, and international and humanitarian aid activities.

Growth in children and adolescents with sickle cell disease in Yemen

Physical growth is known to be impaired in children with sickle cell disease (SCD) and the prevalence and severity vary with geographical location. The factors which contribute to this sub-optimal growth are poorly understood. To describe the growth status of children and adolescents with SCD in Yemen using the new WHO reference values and to assess correlation of growth indicators with disease severity and with haematological and biochemical parameters. A cross-sectional study of children <16 years with SCD was conducted at Al-Wahda General Teaching Hospital, Aden. Anthropometric measurements of weight, length/height, mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC) and body mass index (BMI) were collected. Disease severity was assessed using a severity index (SI) score. A total of 102 children (56 male) were included and their mean age was 7.2 years (range 6 months to 15 years). Low weight, height and BMI-for-age Z-scores (<-2 SD) were observed in 45%, 54% and 35% of children, respectively. Regression analyses indicated an association of low height-for-age with male gender (p=0.02), low weight-for-age and weight-for-height with increased age (both p<0.001), low weight-for-age with raised alkaline phosphatase (p=0.04), and low BMI with reduced plasma albumin (p=0.04). There was no correlation between growth deficits and SI or anaemia severity. Growth is severely impaired in children and adolescents with SCD in Yemen. Growth monitoring and nutritional support should be included in their comprehensive care package.

Marriage patterns in a Mesoamerican peasant community are biologically adaptive

Differential investment in offspring by parental and progeny gender has been discussed and periodically analyzed for the past 80 years as an evolutionary adaptive strategy. Parental investment theory suggests that parents in poor condition have offspring in poor condition. Conversely, parents in good condition give rise to offspring in good condition. As formalized in the Trivers-Willard hypothesis (TWH), investment in daughters will be greater under poor conditions while sons receive greater parental investment under good conditions. Condition is ultimately equated to offspring reproductive fitness, with parents apparently using a strategy to maximize their genetic contribution to future generations. Analyses of sex ratio have been used to support parental investment theory and in many instances, though not all, results provide support for TWH. In the present investigation, economic strategies were analyzed in the context of offspring sex ratio and survival to reproductive age in a Zapotec-speaking community in the Valley of Oaxaca, southern Mexico. Growth status of children, adult stature, and agricultural resources were analyzed as proxies for parental and progeny condition in present and prior generations. Traditional marriage practice in Mesoamerican peasant communities is patrilocal postnuptial residence with investments largely favoring sons. The alternative, practiced by ∼25% of parents, is matrilocal postnuptial residence which is an investment favoring daughters. Results indicated that sex ratio of offspring survival to reproductive age was related to economic strategy and differed significantly between the patrilocal and matrilocal strategies. Variance in sex ratio was affected by condition of parents and significant differences in survival to reproductive age were strongly associated with economic strategy. While the results strongly support TWH, further studies in traditional anthropological populations are needed.

The nutritional status among children under 60 months year-old after one year of the Earthquake in Wenchuan

To evaluate the effects of Wenchuan Earthquake on the nutritional status, growth, and the prevalence nutritional anemia, vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and vitamin D deficiency among children under 60 months old living in the disaster areas. A nutritional survey was conducted in April 2009. The survey recruited 466 under 60 months old children, including 162 children aged 0 months old and 304 children aged 24 - 59 months old. The children's growth status, prevalence of anemia, and the iron deficiency prevalence, vitamin A, D, B(12), folic acid status were measured. The study findings were compared to the results from 2002 Chinese Nutritional and Health Survey. The exclusive breast milk feeding rate among infants under 6-months was 58.8% (30/51). Among the 0 - 23 months old children, only 10.7% (16/150) got breast feeding within one hour after delivery. Ninety-two per cent (149/162) 0 - 23 months old children never received any nutrient supplements. The average cereals and roots intakes of the 24 - 59 months old children living in the disaster area were (267.2 ± 154.3) g/d, higher than the result of rural children average (178.75 g/d) of 2002 National Nutrition and Health Survey (u = 9.995, P < 0.01). The average intakes of vegetables, aquatic products, meat and poultries were (63.6 ± 56.7), (2.6 ± 7.9), (19.4 ± 24.0) g/d, respectively, significantly lower than 2002 results 135.05, 8.82 and 32.23 g/d (u = 21.971, 13.728 and 9.321, P < 0.01). Fruits, dairy products and legumes intakes were (102.2 ± 110.8), (65.2 ± 123.8) and (20.5 ± 29.0) g/d, respectively, higher than 2002 results (32.81, 2.87 and 6.50 g/d; u = 10.919, 8.778 and 8.417, P < 0.01). The prevalence of vitamin A deficiency and marginal deficiency was 15.4% (29/188) and 30.3% (57/188), respectively. The sum of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency was 92.0% (183/199). The prevalence of anemia of the 0-months old children and 24 - 59 months old children was 47.5% (77/162) and 21.5% (60/279), respectively. The prevalence of iron and zinc deficiencies was 45.7% (86/188) and 65.5% (127/197). The prevalence of stunt was 13.6% (38/279) among the 24 - 59 months old children. The results indicated that the dietary structure of the children living in the disaster area was not ideal. Although, the intakes of energy and protein supporting foods could meet the requirements, but the dietary lacks of meats, poultries, dairy products, legume products, aquatic products and vegetables. The vitamin A, vitamin D deficiency, iron and zinc deficiencies are of a high prevalence in the disaster area.

A fuzzy-based growth model with principle component analysis selection for carpal bone-age assessment

There are two well-known methods to assess bone age, the Greulich-Pyle method and the Tanner-Whitehouse method, which both utilize the hand radiogram to make bone-age assessment to assist medical doctors to identify the growth status of children. Basically, the morphology of bones could be evaluated to quantitatively describe the maturity. The study extracted the morphology of carpal bones and applied the fuzzy theory with principle component analysis to estimate the maturity of skeleton. Five geometric features of the carpals were extracted including the bone area, the area ratio, and the bone contour of the carpals. In order to analyze these features, the principle component analysis and the statistical correlation combined with three different types of procedure were used to construct a growth model of carpals. Eventually, the results of the three types of procedure with fuzzy rules can construct a bone-age assessment system to identify the maturity of children. The study shows that the proposed model based on fuzzy rule has an accuracy rate above 89% in Type-I and II, and above 87% in Type-III within a tolerance of 1.5 years.

Persistence of growth stunting in a Peruvian high altitude community, 1964–1999

The growth of children living in Nuñoa, a Peruvian high-altitude community, was studied over a 35-year period using data collected in 1964 and 1999. There had been evidence of a secular trend in growth in the mid-1980s, but this was before a period of sociopolitical upheaval lasting until the late 1990s partly linked to the activities of the Shining Path group and the Peruvian government's response. Anthropometric data for 576 children examined in 1964-1966 were compared with data from 361 children examined in 1999. Data were converted to Z Scores using NCHS/WHO reference standards. Compared with the 1964 cohort, boys in 1999 had marginally greater height Z Scores, but among females, the trend was reversed. Stunting prevalence had decreased from 1964 levels, but still approached 60% in both sexes, among the highest rates recorded for a modern world population. The prevalence of low weight for height was less than expected, possibly because of the compensatory effect of enlarged chest diameter. This anatomical feature may represent the effect of chronic hypoxic stress, causing growth of the chest cavity at the expense of growth in height. In view of modest improvements during the late 1980s in this population, we believe that the relatively poor growth status of children a decade later may result from food disruption associated with later political instability. Compared with children in a nearby community, which benefits from the socioeconomic infrastructure associated with a large copper mine, Nuñoa children continue to fare relatively poorly.

Clinical assessment of pediatric anthropometry

Children are special groups who grow rapidly,the characteristics of physical growth are discontinuous,and individual in different stages.Growth level,growth velocity and proportion of body need in consideration for a proper assessment and explanation of growth status in children. Key words: Children; Growth and development; Evaluation

Effect of Early Intervention on 8-Year Growth Status of Low-Birth-Weight Preterm Infants

To examine the impact of early educational experience at age 8 years on child growth status. The Infant Health and Development Program has shown positive impacts to age 8 years on intelligence and adaptive functioning of larger preterm infants. Randomized controlled trial. Home and center based. Three hundred seventy-seven intervention (INT) and 608 nonintervention (NI) children, stratified by birth-weight categories 2001 to 2500 g and 2000 g or less. Intervention Educational intervention from nursery discharge until age 3 years. Eight-year weight, height, head circumference, and body mass index. Complete data were available for 313 INT children and 491 NI children. Adjusting for child birth weight, birth-weight category, treatment group x birth-weight category interaction, sex, race, and Neonatal Health Index; maternal education and preconception weight; and site, the INT children at age 8 years were significantly taller (127.6 vs 126.6 cm; P = .02) and had a larger head circumference (52.5 vs 52.1 cm; P < .001) than the NI children. The prevalence of both overweight (9%) and underweight (4.5%) was the same in both treatment groups. Lighter low-birth-weight INT children had greater 8-year weight (28.0 vs 26.8 kg; P = .02), larger head circumference (52.6 vs 52.1 cm; P < .001), and larger height (127.6 vs 126.5 cm; P = .05) compared with their counterparts in the NI group. Low-birth-weight preterm children, specifically the lighter low-birth-weight group, who received the Infant Health and Development Program educational intervention were heavier and taller and had greater head circumference compared with NI children in the same birth-weight category.

The Impact of Constipation on Growth in Children

The observation on the impact of constipation on nutritional and growth status in healthy children was never reported. During a 4-y period, we evaluated the consequence of constipation on growth in children. The enrolled children were aged between 1 and 15 y with constipation. Medical response of constipation to treatment was evaluated by the scoring of constipation symptoms. The correlation of therapeutic effect of constipation with growth status at 12 wk and 24 wk was statistically evaluated. About 2426 children (1284 boys, 1142 girls) with a mean age of 7.31 +/- 3.65 (range 1.1-14.9) y were enrolled. After 12-wk treatment, significant increase of z-scores of height-for-age, weight-for-age, and body mass index-for-age were all found in patients with good medical responses (1377 cases) than in those with poor medical responses (1049 cases). The 1049 patients with poor medical response received advanced medications; significant increase of z-scores of height-for-age, weight-for-age, and body mass index were also found in these patients. A marked increase of appetite was significantly correlated with better gain on height and weight after treatment. We conclude that chronic constipation may retard growth status in children, and a long-term medication for constipation in children appears beneficial to their growth status.

Computerized geometric features of carpal bone for bone age estimation

Bone age development is one of the significant indicators depicting the growth status of children. However, bone age assessment is an heuristic and tedious work for pediatricians. We developed a computerized bone age estimation system based on the analysis of geometric features of carpal bones. The geometric features of carpals were extracted and analyzed to judge the bone age of children by computerized shape and area description. Four classifiers, linear, nearest neighbor, back-propagation neural network, and radial basis function neural network, were adopted to categorize bone age. Principal component and discriminate analyses were employed to improve assorting accuracy. The hand X-ray films of 465 boys and 444 girls served as our database. The features were extracted from carpal bone images, including shape, area, and sequence. The proposed normalization area ratio method was effective in bone age classification by simulation. Besides, features statistics showed similar results between the standard of the Greulich and Pyle atlas and our database. The bone area has a higher discriminating power to judge bone age. The ossification sequence of trapezium and trapezoid bones between Taiwanese and the atlas of the GP method is quite different. These results also indicate that carpal bone assessment with classification of neural networks can be correct and practical.

Growth status and academic performance in Brazilian school age children: growth retardation impairs mathematical, but not reading and spelling abilities

To assess the effect of child growth status on academic achievement and the association between child growth and academic standing. The heights of 722 middle-school children were measured using standard procedures and height-for-age z (HAZ) scores were calculated based on an international reference. Academic performance was assessed by an adaptation of the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT3) composed of Reading, Arithmetic and Spelling. Children in the group with higher HAZ scores performed better than children in the group with lower HAZ scores only on the Arithmetic subtest. This finding was confirmed by a multiple regression model analysis of the data. In addition, only performance on the Arithmetic subtest was positively associated with HAZ. These results indicate that growth retardation impacts specifically on the development of arithmetic (numeracy) skills and are consistent with a three-fold model of life course influences on health including latency, cumulative and pathway effects.