Growth Of Pistachio Research Articles

Interactive effect of salinity and Ca to Mg ratio of irrigation water on pistachio growth parameters and its ionic composition in a calcareous soil

ABSTRACT This study investigated the effect of different salinity (EC≈6 and 9 dS/m) and Ca/Mg ratios (≈0.95,0.50, and 0.25) in irrigation water on the chemical composition of soil solution and growth of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). The physiological, biochemical, and yield-related responses of pistachio seedlings were measured within ≈30 weeks in a greenhouse pot experiment. The EC of the soil solutions rapidly approached the one in the irrigation waters while the Ca/Mg ratios slowly altered, as such the final ratios were ≈50-100% larger than the one in the irrigation waters. The slower change in the Ca/Mg ratio is due to the fact that Ca concentration is dominantly controlled by the calcite solubility but the Mg concentration by the ion-exchange reaction. With increasing EC of the soil solution from 5.8–10.4 dS/m, we found 4-fold reduction in shoot dry weight and 62% increase in electrolyte leakage. In each salinity level, the highest yield and membrane stability were achieved at the Ca/Mg ratio of ≈1 in the soil solution. Overall, a Ca/Mg ratio < 1 in the irrigation water shifted the ionic composition of the soil solution, even in calcareous soil, towards a ratio < 1 and negatively affected pistachio growth.

How photoautotrophy, photomixotrophy, and ventilation affect the stomata and fluorescence emission of pistachios rootstock?

The effects of ventilation and sucrose concentration on proliferation and organogenesis of pistachio cutting and photosynthetic performance of two in vitro cultures of pistachio rootstocks have been assessed. The apical leaf buds (Qazvini and UCB1 cultivars) were cultured in filter vessels containing Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 0, 10, 15, and 30 g L−1 of sucrose. The plants treated with 10, 15, and 30 g L−1 sucrose showed no significant differences regarding the measured traits; therefore, this treatment was set aside from the final statistical analyses. Use of different ventilation systems showed to be suitable for increasing the growth of pistachio. Referring to root production difficulties under in vitro cultivation of pistachio, ventilation increased the root production and length. However, the full ventilation system was more effective in improving the growth properties. Regression between fluorescence feature vs root length showed that F v/F m had a significant positive relationship with root length. Stomata of cell parameters under ventilation systems improved compared to no ventilation, which was highly similar to the trend in the greenhouse. The overall results indicated that low concentrations of sucrose (e.g., 10 g L−1) and full ventilation are recommended for producing high quality and vigorous pistachio plantlets under in vitro conditions.

Glycerol foliar application improves salt tolerance in three pistachio rootstocks

Abstract Salinity is one of the most important abiotic stress factors that affect pistachio growth and productivity. Researches has indicated that the detrimental effects associated with salt stress could be overcome by the external application of Glycerol. In the present study, the effects of foliar Glycerol (in three levels: 0, 30 and 60 mM) on three pistachio rootstocks (‘Ghazvini’, ‘Badami’ and ‘Italyayi’) under different salinity stress (0, 4, 8 and 12 dSm−1) were investigated. Salinity significantly decreased the rootstocks’ biomass, number of grown leaves, leaf area, photosynthesis pigments, stomatal conductance, leaf water potential and K+ content in the leaves, shoots and roots. The foliar application of Glycerol at the concentration of 60 mM alleviated growth indices of pistachio rootstocks under saline condition. Foliar Glycerol spray (60 mM) at 12 dSm−1 increased the dry weight of leaves and shoots, up to 176% and 57%, respectively, compared to the control. Leaf area and number of grown leaves increased up to 466% and 32%, respectively, under highest salinity level. Glycerol caused a slight increase in stomatal conductance at 40 and 75 days after imposing the salt stress while it did not have any effects on the leaf water potential. The highest increment percentage of chlorophyll a (51%), chlorophyll b (53%), and root K+ content (40%) was observed in 60 mM Glycerol treated rootstocks at 12 dSm−1. Glycerol application reduce the Na+ concentration in the leaves, shoots and roots. Among three studied rootstocks, response to Glycerol under saline condition were different and was superior in ‘Badami’ In conclusion, Glycerol could be suggested as a cheap, safe and organic agrochemical for alleviating the negative impacts of salt stress in pistachio orchards cultivated in the saline soils.

Exogenous melatonin mitigates the salinity damages and improves the growth of pistachio under salinity stress

This study investigated the ability of exogenous melatonin (MT) to alleviate salinity stress in pistachio seedlings (Pistacia vera cv. Badami-Zarand) in a controlled greenhouse. Seedlings were treated with different salinity levels (25, 50, and 100 and 150 mM). Foliar application of melatonin with 0, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 μmol/L concentrations was applied two times during the seeding treated with the various salinity levels. The results indicated that the deleterious effects of MT application were observed when they were applied under non-stressful conditions (control). The greatest protective effect against simulated salinity stress was observed in 100 μmol/L of MT in 150 mM salinity levels. Melatonins markedly alleviated the inhibitory effects of salinity on root and shoot growth, chlorophyll level and ion leakage. Activities of antioxidant enzymes, proline content, endogenous polyamine and melatonin increased with exogenous application of MT in salinity stress condition. Exogenous melatonin was also associated with significant increases in the nutrient uptake. Therefore, exogenous melatonin can attenuate the salinity damage via enhancing anti-oxidation ability, osmotic activity-adjusting, nutrient uptake and polyamines biosynthesis.

Estimating evapotranspiration of pistachio crop based on SEBAL algorithm using Landsat 8 satellite imagery

Stationary actual evapotranspiration (ET) estimation methods deal with some issues such as maintenance problems, the point data recording for a particular location, the complex hydrological process calculation, and requiring the expert workers. To solve this, ET estimation methods like Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) method can be used based on the satellite images. However, the efficiency of the SEBAL model varies in ET estimation for different products and environmental conditions. On the other hand, pistachio is an important crop of Iran which little investigation were accomplished to estimate its ET using the presented models. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the efficiency of SEBAL algorithm in estimating ET of pistachio crop. In this regard, actual ET of a 100 hectares pistachio farm, located in Safaeieh region in the Semnan province, Iran, was selected as the study area. Implementations were performed using 29 Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) images during the 2013–2017 period. The results were verified and compared with the results of evapotranspiration in standard condition estimated by the Intelligent Meteorological instrument (iMetos-Pessl) as the ground truth. The results of this study indicate the determination coefficient and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of the estimated actual ET for pistachio plant as 0.8 and 2.5 mm, respectively. Moreover, the results indicate the high spatial variability of ET in the pistachio growth period and the need to use a satellite data analysis method, like the SEBAL method, to prepare the ET map. Overall, the results show the good efficiency of the SEBAL model for estimating the actual ET of the pistachio product.

Fine-scale intraspecific interactions and environmental heterogeneity drive the spatial structure in old-growth stands of a dioecious plant

Spatial aggregation of individual plant species is their common response to biotic and abiotic conditions within heterogeneous environments. While conspecifics are clustered in favorable parts of the environment, they compete for scarce resources in these aggregations. Competitive interactions among conspecifics may negatively influence on their growth rate and other ecological processes. Therefore, the spatial distribution patterns of old-growth wild pistachio (Pistacia atlantica) stands were investigated to explore the effects of intraspecific interactions of this dioecious species on the stand spatial structure in the south of Zagros woodlands (Iran). The study was conducted within a 35-ha study plot in a wild pistachio nature reserve and all trees with dbh ≥ 2.5 cm were stem-mapped and measured. Uni- and bivariate pair- and mark correlation functions were applied to describe the interactions of male and female individuals at two life stages (i.e., sapling with dbh < 10 cm and adult with dbh ≥ 10 cm). Our results showed that the study area was dominated by adult trees accounting for 68.9% of all trees (480 adults and 216 saplings) and the proportion of male and female individuals were 37.7% and 62.3%, respectively. Trees were aggregated at small spatial scales. Bivariate tests showed positive spatial correlation of male and female trees at short distances, indicating no spatial segregation of the sexes (SSS). Wild pistachio offsprings were not spatially associated with adults, while strong clustering of offsprings was observed around female individuals up to 16 m distance. However, mark correlation function revealed significant effects of fine-scale competition on wild pistachio growth; therefore, we cannot fully reject SSS hypothesis. If heterogeneity of environmental conditions dominates the intraspecific competitive interactions of wild pistachios, as our findings indicate, then it can significantly influence on the stand spatial structure and coexistence of this dioecious species.

Brassinolides have a small effect on vegetative growth, and increase reproductive growth of pistachio trees Cv. Owhadi

ABSTRACTThe effects of different applications of 24-epi-brassinolideon the physiology and yield of ‘Owhadi’ pistachio trees was investigated in Iran over an off and on year. Plants were treated by 24-epi-brassinolide at 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1mgl−1at green tip and tight cluster of bud stage. Brassinolide decreased the incidence nut physiological disorders and increased yield. The sprays decreased the incidence of inflorescence bud abscission, fruit abscission, misshapen nuts, blank, early splitting and indehisced shell compared with the controls. In both on and off years, the effect of brassinolide was dependent on the time of application and concentration used. Application of this compound, especially at tight cluster stage of buds, increased indehisced shell and yield in both on and off years. Brassinolides appear to play a key role in the growth and development of pistachio.

Effects of salinity stress on growth indices, physiological parameters and element concentration in Banebaghi (Pistacia sp.) as rootstock for pistachio

ABSTRACTBanebaghi is considered a natural hybrid in Pistacia genus that can be used as rootstock for pistachio. In order to study the effects of salinity stress on growth indices, physiological parameters and element concentration in Banebaghi, an experiment was arranged as a factorial in completely randomized design (CRD). Factors were salinity of irrigation water (0, 60 and 120 mM of sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, respectively), growth type (mutica growth type and pistachio growth type) and stem height (stem height lower half of the plant and stem height upper half of the plant) with four replications. Our results showed that salinity reduced vegetative parameters, SPAD index, leaf relative water content (RWC) and water use efficiency (WUE). Shoot dry weight of seedlings in both heights, decreased at the salinity level of 120 mM, at about 60% compared with control. At the highest level of salinity (120 mM), seedlings with a height lower half of the plant had lower reduction in the fresh and dry weight of the root and showed more resistance to the salinity stress because of maintaining RWC of leaves and high levels of potassium and calcium in the shoot. Salinity increased sodium (Na) concentration of shoot and root in both growth types: mutica and pistachio. Seedlings with pistachio growth type and a height upper half of the plant and seedlings with mutica growth type and a height lower half of the plant had more resistance to salinity stress.

Investigation on pistachio distribution in the mountain regions of northeast Iran by ALOS

Iran supports five different vegetation zones. One of those is the Irano-Touranian zone that is located in the northeast of Iran. This vegetation zone includes arid and semi-arid lands, and its area is about 3.5 million hm2. It supports growth of pistachio (Pistacia vera), a deciduous-broadleaved species, which is one of the ecologically and economically most important native species. In this study, we analyzed three images acquired by ALOS satellite, including 10m resolution multispectral band (AVNIR-2), 2.5 m resolution “Backward” PRISM image, and 2.5 m resolution “Nadir” PRISM image, based on a provided rational polynomial coefficient (RPC). Using the “Backward” and “Nadir” images, a 2.5 m resolution digital elevation model (DEM) was produced. Four methods with AVNIR-2 and PRISM data were used to produce pan-sharpening images and conduct an object-based feature extraction process. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to determine the maximum distribution of pistachio in related elevation. The accuracy of the DEM was tested on 28 ground control points in the pair image as tie points, with the value of parallax error of 0.9027 m. The created elevation map indicated that pistachio trees grow up at 650m above sea level (a.s.l.). The result from NDVI in the related elevation showed the maximum density of pistachio at 800m a.s.l. In addition, the result of feature extraction in the forest showed the area of each target element calculated. The results of this research will improve decision-making and lead to sustainable management in general.

Soil Salinity and Water Stress and Their Effect on Susceptibility to Verticillium Wilt Disease, Ion Composition and Growth of Pistachio

AbstractThe effects of soil salinity and water stress on Verticillium wilt, ion composition and growth of pistachio were studied in a greenhouse experiment (18–32°C). Treatments consisted of three levels of salinity (0, 1200 and 2400 mg NaCl/kg soil), three levels of water stress (3, 7 and 14 day irrigation regimes) and two Pistachio cultivars (Sarakhs and Qazvini, common rootstocks in Iran). Infested soil containing 50 microsclerotia/g of a pistachio isolate of Verticillium dahliae was used for all treatments and non‐infested soils were used as control. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications. Eight‐week‐old pistachio seedlings were transferred to infested and non‐infested soil and then exposed to salt stress and thereafter water stress. Shoot dry weights of both rootstocks were reduced significantly with increasing NaCl levels; however, increasing irrigation regimes reduced salt injury. Salt stress significantly increased shoot and root colonization by V. dahliae in both cultivars. Moreover, increasing of salinity level was positively correlated with increasing concentrations of Na+, K+ and Cl− in both cultivars, but negatively correlated with increasing irrigation regimes. Based on these results, Sarakhs and Qazvini were found to be sensitive and tolerant to the effect of irrigation regimes, salinity and Verticillium wilt disease, respectively. Although there were no interactive effects of irrigation and salinity on V. dahliae infection.

Plant Water Relations and Seedling Growth of Three Pistachio Cultivars as Influenced by Irrigation Frequency and Applied Potassium

Despite the economic importance of pistachio (Pistasia vera L.) crop, very little information is available on its water needs and nutrient requirements. Therefore, the effects of three irrigation frequencies (1, 3, and 7 d) and five potassium (K) levels (0, 75, 150, 225, and 300 mg kg− 1) on the plant water relations and growth of three pistachio cultivars (‘Badami,’ ‘Ghazvini,’ and ‘Sarakhs’) were studied in a greenhouse experiment. After 30 weeks, the dry weights of leaves, stems, and roots were measured and the total leaf area determined together with the number of leaves per pot and stem height. The effect of water frequency and K application on the leaf water potential, osmotic potential, and turgor potential was studied. Water frequency decreased all of the above growth parameters. Shoot dry weights were reduced by 50% and 68% for ‘Badami,’ 42% and 66% for ‘Ghazvini,’ and 26% and 46% for ‘Sarakhs’ at the three and seven-day irrigation intervals, respectively. Root dry weights were significantly reduced by 27% and 47% for ‘Badami,’ 18% and 48% for ‘Ghazvini,’ and 10% and 28% for ‘Sarakhs’ at the three and seven-day irrigation intervals, respectively. Leaf water potential, and turgor potential were unexpectedly increased by increase in water frequency. However, water frequency decreased leaf osmotic potential. The K application had no significant effect on the leaf water potential, osmotic potential, and turgor potential. It seems that NH4OAc-extractable K (70 mg kg− 1) was probably sufficient for optimum seedling growth of pistachio. Furthermore, ‘Sarakhs’ proved to be the cultivar most tolerant to drought stress in the present study.

Shoot Preformation and Neoformation in Pistachio: Influences on Bearing Habit and Yield Components

Rootstock significantly alters the pattern of shoot growth of pistachio (Pistacia vera) cv. Kerman. Trees grown on P. atlantica typically produce a single flush of spring growth, whereas trees on P. integerrima selection PGI and P. atlantica × P. integerrima selection UCB-1 can produce multiple flushes during the season. We have shown that the spring flush is entirely preformed in the dormant bud for all three rootstocks, but later flushes are neoformed, that is, nodes are initiated and extended during the same season. Shoots producing both preformed and neoformed growth have lower yield efficiency than those producing only preformed growth. Additionally, yield components of the crop from shoots with both preformed and neoformed growth was different than for shoots producing only preformed growth. However, these differences do not appear to be significant at the whole tree level. These data suggest that neoformed growth can both compete with fruit growth for available resources (lower yield efficiency) and act as an additional source (altered yield components), depending on the factor being measured. Controlling neoformed growth may potentially increase pistachio yield through a shift to the more efficient preformed shoots while at the same time lowering orchard maintenance costs by reducing required pruning. We have data to indicate that regulated deficit irrigation and new pruning techniques may be viable methods for controlling neoformed growth in pistachio without affecting yield.

Effect of Rootstock on Shoot Preformation and Neoformation in Pistachio cv. Kerman

Rootstock significantly alters the pattern of shoot growth of pistachio (Pistacia vera) cv. Kerman. Trees on P. atlantica typically produce a single flush of spring growth whereas trees on P. integerrima selection PGI and P. atlantica × P. integerrima selection UCB-1 can produce multiple flushes during the season. Terminal buds of shoots on all three rootstocks were dissected during the dormant season to determine the number of preformed nodes. Data indicate that there are 8-9 nodes preformed in the dormant terminal bud of shoots from Kerman trees and that this number is independent of rootstock, canopy location, crop load, and shoot carbohydrate concentration, suggesting genetic control. This number corresponds with the number of nodes typically found on a shoot at the end of the spring growth flush. Unlike the spring flush which is preformed in the dormant bud, later flushes are neoformed, that is, nodes are initiated and extended during the same season. Neoformed growth depends on current season photosynthates and may compete with fruit growth for available resources. Neoformed growth is sensitive to water stress and trees on all three rootstocks grown under two levels of regulated deficit irrigation showed a reduction in both the number and length of neoformed shoots. Preformed shoot growth did not appear to be reduced under water stress conditions, supporting the hypothesis that preformed shoots are more dependent on environmental conditions during the season they are initiated than during the season they are extended. Additionally, preformed shoots on well irrigated trees were similar in length for all rootstocks, further supporting the idea that preformed shoots are under genetic control and are not easily manipulated.

Growth and Chemical Composition of Pistachio Affected by Salinities and Depths of Water Table

Pistachio may be grown around the central desert of I.R. Iran with adverse conditions such as shallow saline water tables, which limit its growth and production. The effects of saline (13 dS m−1) and non-saline (0.5 dS m−1) shallow water table depths of 30, 60, 90, and 120 cm under irrigated and not irrigated conditions on growth and chemical composition of a local pistachio cultivar (Badami–Zarandi) were studied in a greenhouse experiment. The results indicated that appropriate growth of pistachio may occur at water table depth of 60 cm under irrigated condition. Only at this depth, the difference in plant growth between irrigated and not irrigated conditions were significant, and low plant growth was obtained at not irrigated condition. At saline water table (13 dS m−1) and not irrigated condition water table depth should be kept below 60 cm for normal pistachio production.

Seedling growth and chemical composition of two pistachio cultivars as affected by boron and nitrogen application

Abstract The combined effects of four nitrogen (N) levels (0, 50, 100, and 150 μg/g soil) and six boron (B) rates (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 μg/g soil) on the growth and chemical composition of Kale‐ghoochi, a cultivar of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) semi‐tolerant to B toxicity, and Badami, a cultivar very sensitive to B toxicity, were studied in a calcareous soil under greenhouse conditions. The application of 20 μg/g B has beneficial effects on leaf growth of the Kale‐ghoochi cultivar. The toxic effect of B application greater than 40 μg/g on pistachio growth was alleviated by application of 50 and 100 μg N/g for Kale‐ghoochi and Badami cultivars, respectively. The rate of B accumulation in pistachio shoots was reduced about 39 % by N additions of 50 to 150 μg/g for Badami, and 24, 52, and 69% with N rates of 50, 100, and 150 μg/g for Kale‐ghoochi, respectively. Therefore, when pistachio is grown in B‐enriched soils and/or is irrigated with water of relatively high B content, it is recommended that the...