Offspring Growth Research Articles

Separating Paternal and Maternal Contributions to Thermal Transgenerational Plasticity

Climate change is rapidly altering the thermal environment in terrestrial and aquatic systems. Transgenerational thermal plasticity (TGP) – which occurs when the temperatures experienced by the parental generation prior to the fertilization of gametes results in a change in offspring reaction norms – may mitigate the effects of climate change. Although “maternal effects” have been widely studied, relatively little is known about TGP effects in vertebrates, particularly paternal contributions. We used artificial fertilization to cross sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) parents exposed to either low (26°C) or high (32°C) temperatures and measured growth rates of the offspring over the first 8 weeks of life at both low and high temperatures. A linear mixed effects model was employed to quantify the effects of maternal, paternal, and offspring temperatures on offspring growth and fecundity. We found that the offspring growth rate up to 63 days post-hatch was affected by both the temperature they experienced directly and parental temperatures prior to fertilization. Growth was lowest when neither parents’ temperature matched the offspring temperature, indicating a strong transgenerational effect. Notably, offspring growth was highest when all three (offspring, sire, and dam) temperatures matched [although the three-way interaction was found to be marginally non-significant (P = 0.155)], suggesting that TGP effects were additive across significant sire-offspring (P < 0.001) and dam-offspring interactions (P < 0.001). Transgenerational effects on fecundity (GSI) were suggestive for both maternal and paternal effects, but not significant. The finding that thermal TGP is contributed by both parents strongly suggests that it has an epigenetic basis.

Maternal magnolol supplementation alters placental morphology, promotes placental angiogenesis during mid-gestation and improves offspring growth in a pregnant mouse model

The placenta is the organ that determines the growth of the fetus and the outcome of pregnancy. Magnolol is a multifunctional polyphenol with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and neuroprotective functions. However, there is less knowledge of the effects or complications in the placenta and the mechanism underlying the effect of magnolol when used during pregnancy. The aim of this study was to explore the effects of maternal magnolol supplementation on pregnancy outcomes and placental alterations in a pregnant mouse model. A total of 128 pregnant mice were randomly divided into 4 groups supplemented with 0, 40, 80 and 160 μM magnolol from gestational day 0 (GD0) to delivery. Our results revealed that the number of large-for-gestation-age fetuses on GD13 and the weaning weight of offspring were increased in the magnolol treatment groups. Moreover, maternal magnolol supplementation increased superoxide dismutase (SOD), decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) in maternal serum, and promoted the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in the placenta. Furthermore, magnolol significantly increased the area of the junctional zone and decidua in the placentas and increased the expression of interferon-γ (INF-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), chemokine (CC Motif) Ligand 3 (CCL3), chemokine (CXC motif) ligand 10 (CXCL10), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and T-box transcription factor 21 (T-bet) in the placenta during GD13 in pregnant mice, while suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) was reduced. Moreover, the ratio of blood space in the labyrinth area, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were all increased in the magnolol treatment groups on GD13. Taken together, these results indicate that magnolol can improve the growth of offspring, which might be due to the alteration of placental morphology and the promotion of placental angiogenesis during mid-gestation.

PSIII-24 Poor gestational nutrition impacts sheep offspring growth but not feed efficiency

Abstract The objective was to determine the effects of poor maternal nutrition during gestation on growth and feed efficiency of offspring. We hypothesized that body weights (BW) would decrease and residual feed intake (RFI) would increase (reduced feed efficiency) in offspring of restricted- and over-fed ewes. Forty-six multiparous Dorset ewes pregnant with twins were fed 100%, 60% or 140% of NRC requirements from d 30 of gestation until parturition. Offspring are referred to as CON (n = 10 ewes; 12 rams), RES (n = 13 ewes; 21 rams), and OVER (n = 16 ewes; 13 rams), respectively. Lamb BW were measured weekly from birth to d 28 and biweekly until d 252 of age. Starting at d 167±13.6, daily intake of a complete pelleted feed was recorded using a Super SmartFeed (C-lock Inc., Rapid City, SD) over a 77 d- feeding period. Average BW were taken two days before, at mid-point, and two days after the feeding trial period and RFI was calculated for each animal. Rams were euthanized at d 284±12 and body morphometrics, loin eye area (LEA), back fat thickness, and organ weights were collected. From birth to d 252, ram lambs were 5.4 kg heavier (P < 0.001) than ewe lambs. Control ewe lambs were 4.3 kg heavier than RES and OVER (P < 0.05) from birth to 9 months and CON rams were 4.7 kg heavier (P < 0.01) than RES. Rams (-0.17) were more efficient than ewes (0.23; P < 0.01); however, no dietary treatment difference was observed (P ≥ 0.57). No differences in muscle mass, LEA, and adipose deposition were observed (P ≥ 0.41). These data indicate that poor maternal diet during gestation impacts offspring growth but not RFI. Further investigation is warranted to determine if differences in BW are a result of metabolic alterations impacted by poor maternal nutrition during gestation.

PSIII-26 The effects of maternal melatonin supplementation during pregnancy on longissimus dorsi muscle morphometrics in bovine fetuses at 240 days of gestation

Abstract Melatonin is a multifunctional hormone that positively impacts postnatal growth and weaning weight in cattle offspring when supplemented to adequately fed dams during gestation. However, it is unclear whether supplemental melatonin is effective as a countermeasure to decrease effects of a nutritionally compromised pregnancy on fetal tissues. The current study evaluated the efficacy of maternal melatonin supplementation during gestation, as a therapeutic in nutrient restricted beef heifers using fetal LM morphometrics for evaluation of carcass tissue growth. On gestational d 160, 25 Brangus heifers were assigned to one of four groups in a 2 x 2 factorial: nutrient restricted (RES-CON: 60% NRC; n = 6), adequate fed (ADQ-CON; 100% NRC; n = 6), nutrient restricted supplemented with 20 mg melatonin (RES-MEL; n = 7), or adequate fed supplemented with 20 mg melatonin (ADQ-MEL; n = 6). Treatments were top-dressed with 2 mL of melatonin dissolved in 100% ethanol (10 mg/mL) or 2 mL of ethanol (control). At gestational d 240, Caesarean sections and fetal necropsies were performed, both fetal LM were dissected to determine weight, length, and midline circumference. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. There was a diet by treatment interaction wherein the mass of the left and right LM was increased (P0.035) by an average of 42.46 g in RES-MEL offspring compared to RES-CON fetuses, but no differences (P0.0812) among ADQ groups. Restricted nutrition decreased left LM circumference (10.21 vs. 10.95 cm; P = 0.0445). Treatment had no effect on LM length (P0.1139). In the present study, maternal melatonin supplementation during the Summer promoted muscle growth and mitigated the adverse effects of a nutritionally compromised pregnancy on LM morphometrics. These data are indicative of the potential for melatonin as a gestational therapeutic for prenatal muscle growth and improved efficiency of meat animal production.

97 Awardee Talk: Feeding Essential Fatty Acids to Late-gestating Beef Cows Optimizes Performance and Health Responses of the Offspring

Abstract Option 1, Fetal Programming Only: Non-lactating, pregnant, multiparous Angus × Hereford cows (n = 104) were ranked by pregnancy sire (1 of 2 sires), body weight (BW), and body condition score (BCS) on d -15 of the experiment (d 180 of gestation). Cows were then assigned to receive: (1) 195 g/cow daily of CSSO (n = 52) or 2) 170 g/cow daily of CON (n = 52). Cows received treatments individually from d 0 to calving. Calves were weaned on d 290 of the experiment, preconditioned for 35 d, and placed in a feedyard until slaughter (d 514). Cows receiving CSSO and their calves had greater (P < 0.01) plasma concentrations ω-6 PUFA compared with CON after calving. Colostrum IgG and calf plasma IgG concentrations 24 h after birth were greater (P ≤ 0.02) in CSSO vs. CON cattle. Calves from CSSO cows had greater (P ≤ 0.05) expression of adipogenic and myogenic genes in the longissimus muscle compared with CON. No treatments differences in birth BW, weaning BW, and final preconditioning BW were noted (P ≥ 0.36). Average daily gain and final BW in the feedyard were greater (P ≤ 0.05) in steers from CSSO cows compared with CON. The incidence of calves diagnosed with BRD that required a second antimicrobial treatment was less (P = 0.03) in calves from CSSO cows, resulting in reduced (P = 0.05) need of treatments to regain health compared with CON. Upon slaughter, LM area was greater (P = 0.03) in calves from CSSO cows compared with CON. Collectively, these results are indicative of programming effects on postnatal offspring growth and health resultant from CSSO supplementation to late-gestating cows. Hence, supplementing CSSO to beef cows during pregnancy might be a feasible alternative to optimize offspring productivity and welfare. Option 2, Fetal Programming and Fat Tubs: Two experiments were conducted to evaluate: (1) effects of calcium salts of soybean oil (CSSO) supplementation to late gestating beef cows on the performance of the offspring; (2) the viability of utilizing low-moisture molasses-based blocks (LMB) as a delivery method for CSSO supplementation. In experiment 1, non-lactating, pregnant, multiparous Angus × Hereford cows were assigned to receive: (1) 195 g/cow daily of CSSO (n = 52) or (2) 170 g/cow daily of CON (n = 52) from d 195 of gestation until calving. CSSO cattle had greater (P < 0.01) plasma concentrations ω-6 PUFA; greater (P ≤ 0.02) colostrum and calf plasma IgG concentrations; greater (P ≤ 0.05) expression of adipogenic and myogenic genes in the longissimus muscle (LM); required fewer microbial treatments for BRD (P = 0.05) and had greater LM area compared to CON cohorts. In experiment 2, non-lactating, non-pregnant, multiparous beef cows were allocated to 1 of 9 pens (n = 9 pens; 4 cows/pen) and each pen was assigned to receive: 1) NOSUPP, hay only diet; 2) LMB, self-fed LMB supplement containing 24.7% DM CSSO; 3) CONC, hand-fed supplement identical to LMB. The design was a replicated 3 x 2 Latin square with 2 periods of 42 d, and a 21-d washout interval. Supplement DM intake did not differ (P = 0.39) between LMB and CONC cows from d 14 to 42 as designed, despite a greater variation in daily intake of LMB vs. CONC (treatment × day interaction; P < 0.01). No treatments effects were noted (P ≥ 0.40) for hay intake, BCS, and BW. From d 14 to 42, plasma concentrations of, ω-6 PUFA (P < 0.01) in CONC and LMB vs. NOSUPP cows. Hence, the use of self-fed LMB appears to be a valid strategy to provide CSSO to forage-fed beef cattle.

Metabolomics to understand placental biology: Where are we now?

Metabolomics, the application of analytical chemistry methodologies to survey the chemical composition of a biological system, is used to globally profile and compare metabolites in one or more groups of samples. Given that metabolites are the terminal end-products of cellular metabolic processes, or ‘phenotype’ of a cell, tissue, or organism, metabolomics is valuable to the study of the maternal-fetal interface as it has the potential to reveal nuanced complexities of a biological system as well as differences over time or between individuals. The placenta acts as the primary site of maternal-fetal exchange, the success of which is paramount to growth and development of offspring during pregnancy and beyond. Although the study of metabolomics has proven moderately useful for the screening, diagnosis, and understanding of the pathophysiology of pregnancy complications, the placental metabolome in the context of a healthy pregnancy remains poorly characterized and understood. Herein, we discuss the technical aspects of metabolomics and review the current literature describing the placental metabolome in human and animal models, in the context of health and disease. Finally, we highlight areas for future opportunities in the emerging field of placental metabolomics.

Maternal Immune Activation during Pregnancy Alters Postnatal Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in Nonhuman Primate Offspring.

Human epidemiological studies implicate exposure to infection during gestation in the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders. Animal models of maternal immune activation (MIA) have identified the maternal immune response as the critical link between maternal infection and aberrant offspring brain and behavior development. Here we evaluate neurodevelopment of male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) born to MIA-treated dams (n = 14) injected with a modified form of the viral mimic polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid at the end of the first trimester. Control dams received saline injections at the same gestational time points (n = 10) or were untreated (n = 4). MIA-treated dams exhibited a strong immune response as indexed by transient increases in sickness behavior, temperature, and inflammatory cytokines. Although offspring born to control or MIA-treated dams did not differ on measures of physical growth and early developmental milestones, the MIA-treated animals exhibited subtle changes in cognitive development and deviated from species-typical brain growth trajectories. Longitudinal MRI revealed significant gray matter volume reductions in the prefrontal and frontal cortices of MIA-treated offspring at 6 months that persisted through the final time point at 45 months along with smaller frontal white matter volumes in MIA-treated animals at 36 and 45 months. These findings provide the first evidence of early postnatal changes in brain development in MIA-exposed nonhuman primates and establish a translationally relevant model system to explore the neurodevelopmental trajectory of risk associated with prenatal immune challenge from birth through late adolescence.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Women exposed to infection during pregnancy have an increased risk of giving birth to a child who will later be diagnosed with a neurodevelopmental disorder. Preclinical maternal immune activation (MIA) models have demonstrated that the effects of maternal infection on fetal brain development are mediated by maternal immune response. Since the majority of MIA models are conducted in rodents, the nonhuman primate provides a unique system to evaluate the MIA hypothesis in a species closely related to humans. Here we report the first longitudinal study conducted in a nonhuman primate MIA model. MIA-exposed offspring demonstrate subtle changes in cognitive development paired with marked reductions in frontal gray and white matter, further supporting the association between prenatal immune challenge and alterations in offspring neurodevelopment.

Precision feeding gestating sows: effects on offspring growth performance and carcass and loin quality at slaughter.

A total of 601 pigs from 65 litters were used to determine the effects of closely meeting estimated daily Lys and energy requirements for sows during gestation for three consecutive parities on offspring postweaning growth performance and carcass and loin quality at slaughter. Sows were assigned a control (static diet composition; CON) or precision (individual daily blend of two diets to meet estimated Lys and energy requirements; PRE) feeding program between days 7 and 110 of gestation for three consecutive pregnancy cycles, starting with primiparous sows (parity 1: 12 CON and 12 PRE sows; parity 2: 8 CON and 13 PRE sows; parity 3: 8 CON and 12 PRE sows). At weaning (20 ± 2 d of age), up to 10 pigs per litter were randomly selected and placed in a pen (1 litter per pen). All pens received ad libitum access to commercial diets in six phases (four-phase nursery, grower, and finisher, respectively). Four pigs per pen were slaughtered at ~125 kg BW for evaluation of carcass characteristics and loin quality. The ADG and ADFI of offspring were not influenced by maternal feeding program in any parity during nursery phases I through III. During nursery phase IV, ADG and ADFI were greater for litters from PRE- vs. CON-fed sows (0.70 vs. 0.66 ± 0.03 and 1.15 vs. 1.08 ± 0.06 kg/d for ADG and ADFI, respectively; P < 0.05). The BW for litters from PRE- vs. CON-fed sows tended to be greater by day 66 of age (end of nursery period; 29.7 vs. 28.7 ± 1.1 kg; P = 0.076). Within the grower phase, litters from PRE-fed sows had a greater ADG in parity 2 but lower ADG in parity 3 vs. litters from CON-fed sows (0.99 vs. 0.94 and 0.93 vs. 1.01 ± 0.03 kg/d for parities 2 and 3, respectively; P < 0.05). No differences were observed for ADG or ADFI in the finisher phase or G:F in any phase for any parity. Loin eye area was smaller (52.2 vs. 55.0 ± 1.8 cm2; P < 0.05) for offspring from PRE- vs. CON-fed sows. In parity 2, carcass lean yield tended to be less for offspring from PRE- vs. CON-fed sows (58.6 vs. 59.6 ± 0.4%; P = 0.051). Minimal differences were observed for subjective and objective evaluations of loin quality. Closely meeting the estimated daily energy and Lys requirements for sows throughout gestation for three consecutive pregnancy cycles improved offspring growth performance (ADG and ADFI) in the final nursery stage, but generally did not affect growth performance in grower/finisher periods or carcass and loin quality at ~125 kg BW.

Expression and antimicrobial activity of liver-expressed antimicrobial peptides in the ovaries of the viviparous teleost Xenotoca eiseni

The mechanism via which the mothers of viviparous animals regulate the internal environment of pregnancy-associated organs for maintaining offspring growth is poorly understood. Environmental niches in organs contain fluid components for supporting embryonic growth; however, they may serve as nutrients for microbes. Therefore, microbial control is essential in viviparous animals to reduce the risk of infection in the ovarian lumen. Its importance may be higher than that in the case of oviparous animals. In this study, we investigated the antimicrobial factors in a viviparous teleost, Xenotoca eiseni. Four transcripts of the liver-expressed antimicrobial peptide (LEAP) were identified via RNA-Seq analysis. Some of the genes were expressed in the ovaries or intraovarian embryos of the fish. In particular, high expression of leap1a was detected in the ovaries of both pregnant and non-pregnant fish. Moreover, the ovary extracts from X. eiseni and transformed leap genes exhibited antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli. Our results suggest that viviparous teleosts utilize antimicrobial peptides to reduce the risk of infection in the ovarian lumen.

Effect of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus on the Growth, Development, and Stem Cells of Offspring

Abstract The effects of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) on offspring include macrosomia, hypoglycemia, respiratory distress syndrome, cardiovascular disease, neural and mental injury, etc. The effects of GDM on the health status of offspring are sustained although pregnancy has ended. It has been proposed that fetal reprogramming causes long-term consequences to metabolic health in offspring. An intrauterine high-glucose environment may lead to changes in the multi-differentiation proficiency of intracorporal stem cells, showing decreased proliferation and osteogenic ability, increased adipogenic ability, accelerated apoptosis, and occurrence of premature failure. This environment also reduces the mobilization of bone marrow stem cells, whereas it increases that of medullary cells. This results in pro-inflammatory conditions and sustained inflammation in the body, thereby increasing the risk of obesity, cardiovascular and neurological disorders, and metabolic abnormalities. Stem cells derived from the amniotic membrane, umbilical cord, or placenta may be a reliable predictor of the long-term effects of GDM on offspring. The levels of blood glucose during pregnancy should be effectively controlled to reduce harm to the neonate.

Cardiometabolic Phenotypic Differences in Male Offspring Born to Obese Preeclamptic-Like BPH/5 Mice

Preeclampsia (PE) is a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy occurring in approximately 10% of women worldwide. While it is life threatening to both the mother and baby, the only effective treatment is delivery of the placenta and fetus, which is often preterm. Maternal obesity is a risk factor for PE, and the effects of both on offspring are long standing with increased incidence of cardiometabolic disease in adulthood. Obese BPH/5 mice spontaneously exhibit excessive gestational weight gain and late-gestational hypertension, similar to women with PE, along with fetal growth restriction and accelerated compensatory growth in female offspring. We hypothesized that BPH/5 male offspring will demonstrate cardiovascular and metabolic phenotypes similar to BPH/5 females. As previously described, BPH/5 females born to ad libitum-fed dams are overweight with hyperphagia and increased subcutaneous, peri-renal, and peri-gonadal white adipose tissue (WAT) and cardiomegaly compared to age-matched adult female controls. In this study, BPH/5 adult male mice have similar body weights and food intake compared to age-matched control mice but have increased inflammatory subcutaneous and peri-renal WAT and signs of cardiovascular disease: left ventricular hypertrophy and hypertension. Therefore, adult male BPH/5 do not completely phenocopy the cardiometabolic profile of female BPH/5 mice. Future investigations are necessary to understand the differences observed in BPH/5 male and female mice as they age. In conclusion, the impact of fetal programming due to PE has a transgenerational effect on both male and female offspring in the BPH/5 mouse model. The maternal obesogenic environment may play a role in PE pregnancy outcomes, including offspring health as they age.

Voluntary intake, milk and colostrum production and lamb growth when ewes are fed high-NaCl diets during pre- and post-lambing

Nutritional requirements at the end of gestation in ewes carrying multiple fetuses are rarely fully met in pasture production systems. Thus, concentrate feeds entail an alternative for increasing herd productivity. However, daily offer of complementary feed in extensive livestock production systems is not always possible due to climatic or geographic constraints or to labor shortages. One alternative is to offer large amounts of concentrate feed with the addition of NaCl that limits voluntary consumption, eliminating the need for daily supplement delivery. Our objective was to evaluate the effect of high salt levels added to concentrate feed on pre- and post-lambing twin-gestating ewes and their responses on feed intake, colostrum and milk production and composition, plasma biochemical profile variation and lamb growth. Twenty-four adult Corriedale females were housed in individual stalls and divided into four treatments: S13: ad libitum concentrate feed plus 13 % of salt; C13: the same amount of concentrate feed consumed by S13 ewes the day before, but without salt; S17: ad libitum concentrate feed with 17 % of salt, and C17: the same amount of concentrate feed consumed by S17 ewes the day before, but without salt. Fresh water and forage were offered in ad libitum amounts. Treatments were applied in the period of highest ewe nutrient demand, from day 123 of pregnancy to day 21 of lactation. The four percentage points in salt content resulted in a decrease of organic matter daily intake of concentrate (23 % of reduction in pre-lambing and 35 % of reduction in post-lambing for S17 relative to S13; P = 0.0134 and P = 0.0164, respectively). Lamb birth weights were similar between S13 and C13 (P = 0.1002) and between S17 and C17 (P = 0.8449) treatments. Colostrum and milk production did not differ between S13 and C13 (P = 0.9776 and P = 0.8928, respectively) or between S17 and C17 groups (P = 0.4943 and P = 0.7705, respectively). Plasma insulin, hematocrit and total protein levels were not influenced by the treatments and these parameters remained within normal physiological limits. Thus, the addition of 13 or 17 % of salt to concentrate feed did not affect the reproductive capacity of ewes or offspring growth, showing that ewes are able to withstand high doses of NaCl and supporting the potential of salt as a limiter of voluntary intake in pre- and post-lambing diets.

The Effect of Dietary Protein Imbalance during Pregnancy on the Growth, Metabolism and Circulatory Metabolome of Neonatal and Weaned Juvenile Porcine Offspring.

Protein imbalance during pregnancy affects women in underdeveloped and developing countries and is associated with compromised offspring growth and an increased risk of metabolic diseases in later life. We studied in a porcine model the glucose and urea metabolism, and circulatory hormone and metabolite profile of offspring exposed during gestation, to maternal isoenergetic low–high (LP-HC), high–low (HP-LC) or adequate (AP) protein–carbohydrate ratio diets. At birth, LP-HC were lighter and the plasma acetylcarnitine to free carnitine ratios at 1 day of life was lower compared to AP offspring. Plasma urea concentrations were lower in 1 day old LP-HC offspring than HP-LC. In the juvenile period, increased insulin concentrations were observed in LP-HC and HP-LC offspring compared to AP, as was body weight from HP-LC compared to LP-HC. Plasma triglyceride concentrations were lower in 80 than 1 day old HP-LC offspring, and glucagon concentrations lower in 80 than 1 day old AP and HP-LC offspring. Plasma urea and the ratio of glucagon to insulin were lower in all 80 than 1 day old offspring. Aminoacyl-tRNA, arginine and phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan metabolism, histidine and beta-alanine metabolism differed between 1 and 80 day old AP and HP-LC offspring. Maternal protein imbalance throughout pregnancy did not result in significant consequences in offspring metabolism compared to AP, indicating enormous plasticity by the placenta and developing offspring.

No adverse effect of a maternal high carbohydrate diet on their offspring, in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

In order to develop a sustainable salmonid aquaculture, it is essential to continue to reduce the use of the protein-rich fishmeal. One promising solution to do so is the use of plant-derived carbohydrates in diet destined to broodstock. However, in mammals, the reduction of protein content (replaced by carbohydrates) in parental diet is known to have strong adverse effects on offspring phenotypes and metabolism. For the first time, the effect of a paternal and a maternal high carbohydrate-low protein diet was assessed on progeny at long term in the rainbow trout. A 30% protein diminution in both males and females broodstock diet during 10 month and 5 months, respectively, did not trigger adverse consequences on their offspring. At the molecular level, offspring transcriptomes were not significantly altered, emphasizing no effect on metabolism. Tenuous differences in the biochemical composition of the liver and the viscera were observed. The recorded effects remained in the normal range of value and accordingly offspring growth were not negatively affected over the long term. Overall, we demonstrated here that a 30% protein diminution during gametogenesis is feasible, confirming the possibility to increase the proportion of plant-derived carbohydrates in female broodstock diets to replace fishmeal proteins.

Maternal Dietary Quality and Dietary Inflammation Associations with Offspring Growth, Placental Development, and DNA Methylation

The ‘Developmental Origins of Health and Diseases’ hypothesis posits that prenatal maternal diet influences offspring growth and later life health outcomes. Dietary assessment has focused on selected nutrients. However, this approach does not consider the complex interactions between foods and nutrients. To provide a more comprehensive approach to public health, dietary indices have been developed to assess dietary quality, dietary inflammation and risk factors for non-communicable diseases. Thus far, their use in the context of placental development is limited and associations with offspring outcomes have been inconsistent. Although epidemiological studies have focused on the role of maternal diet on foetal programming, the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood. Some evidence suggests these associations may be driven by placental and epigenetic changes. In this narrative review, we examine the current literature regarding relationships between key validated diet quality scores (Dietary Inflammatory Index [DII], Mediterranean diet [MD], Healthy Eating Index [HEI], Alternative Healthy Eating Index [AHEI], Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension [DASH], Glycaemic Index [GI] and Glycaemic Load [GL]) in pregnancy and birth and long-term offspring outcomes. We summarise findings, discuss potential underlying placental and epigenetic mechanisms, in particular DNA methylation, and highlight the need for further research and public health strategies that incorporate diet quality and epigenetics.

Effects of poor maternal nutrition during gestation on ewe and offspring plasma concentrations of leptin and ghrelin

Poor maternal nutrition during gestation can negatively affect offspring growth, development, and health. Leptin and ghrelin, key hormones in energy homeostasis and appetite control, may mediate these changes. We hypothesized that restricted- and over-feeding during gestation would alter plasma concentrations of leptin and ghrelin in ewes and offspring. Pregnant ewes (n = 37) were fed 1 of 3 diets starting on d 30 ± 0.02 of gestation until necropsy at d 135 of gestation or parturition: restricted- [RES; 60% National Research Council (NRC) requirements for total digestible nutrients, n = 13], control- (CON; 100% NRC, n = 11), or over-fed (OVER; 140% NRC, n = 13). Blood samples were collected from pregnant ewes at days 20, 30, 44, 72, 100, 128, and 142 of gestation. Offspring blood samples were collected within 24 h after birth (n = 21 CON, 25 RES, 23 OVER). Plasma leptin and ghrelin concentrations were determined by RIA. Ewe data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS with ewe as the repeated subject. Offspring data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure. Correlations between BW and leptin and ghrelin concentrations were identified using PROC CORR. At d 100, RES (5.39 ± 2.58 ng/mL) had decreased leptin concentrations compared with OVER (14.97 ± 2.48 ng/mL; P = 0.008) and at d 128, RES (6.39 ± 2.50 ng/mL) also had decreased leptin concentrations compared with OVER (13.61 ± 2.47 ng/mL; P = 0.04). At d 142, RES (0.26 ± 0.04 ng/mL) had increased ghrelin concentrations compared with CON (0.15 ± 0.04 ng/mL; P = 0.04). Leptin and ghrelin concentrations were also altered between days of gestation within a dietary treatment. In CON ewes, plasma concentrations of leptin were increased at d 30 (19.28 ± 7.43 ng/mL) compared with d 44 (5.20 ± 3.10 ng/mL; P = 0.03), and the plasma concentrations of ghrelin at d 128 (0.20 ± 0.03 ng/mL) were increased compared with d 30 (0.16 ± 0.03 ng/mL; P = 0.01) and d 100 (0.17 ± 0.03 ng/mL; P = 0.04). Maternal diet did not alter plasma ghrelin or leptin concentrations in the offspring (P > 0.50). There were no strong, significant correlations between ewe BW and leptin (r < 0.33; P > 0.06) or ghrelin (r > -0.47; P > 0.001) concentrations or lamb BW and leptin or ghrelin concentrations (r > -0.32, P > 0.06). Maternal alterations in circulating leptin and ghrelin may program changes in energy balance that could result in increased adiposity in adult offspring. Alterations in energy homeostasis may be a mechanism behind the long-lasting changes in growth, body composition, development, and metabolism in the offspring of poorly nourished ewes.

Experimental manipulation of maternal corticosterone: Hormone transfer to the yolk in the zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata

Maternally-derived hormones affect offspring physiological and behavioural phenotype, plausibly as an adaptive response to maternal environmental conditions. Corticosterone (CORT), the principal avian glucocorticoid produced in response to stress, is recognised as a potential mediator of such maternal reproductive effects. Maternally-derived yolk CORT is implicated in mediating offspring growth and hatchling begging behaviour. However, determining the potential for maternal effects in opportunistic breeders subject to variable environments relies on understanding whether natural variation in maternal circulating hormones may directly impact the embryo during development. Therefore, we tested whether elevated maternal CORT concentrations increase yolk CORT concentrations in zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) eggs. We remotely dosed breeding females with biologically-relevant doses of CORT, or the oil vehicle, 0–3 h prior to the predicted time of ovulation, and allowed pairs to produce two clutches, one under each treatment, in a crosswise, balanced design. CORT dosing elevated maternal plasma CORT and increased mean yolk CORT by a factor of 1.75 compared to the egg yolks of control mothers. Importantly, CORT concentrations did not differ between inner and outer layers of yolk. We found no egg lay order effect and maternal CORT dosing did not influence reproductive outputs (clutch initiation date, clutch size or egg mass). Our results confirm the direct impact of biologically-relevant increases in maternal CORT on yolk CORT, providing evidence that maternal CORT concentrations during yolk deposition to the follicle alters embryonic exogenous CORT exposure. Further research is required to determine the impact of maternal CORT on embryonic developmental programming.

Association between maternal vitamin D status with pregnancy outcomes and offspring growth in a population of Wuxi, China.

The role of maternal vitamin D in infantile growth remains unclear. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentrations were examined for pregnancies who visited the Affiliated Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital of Nanjing Medical University from January 2016 to December 2017. Anthropometric measurements of corresponding offspring were performed from birth to 2 to 3 years old. Infantile body mass index (BMI) was transformed into age-, sex- and height- normalized z scores, and Latent Class Growth Mixture (LCGM) model was used to identify trajectories of BMI-Z. Among the 329 included pregnancy women, 109 (33.13 %), 190 (57.75%) and 30 (9.12%) were defined as vitamin D deficiency [25(OH)D <30 nmol/L], insufficiency [30 nmol/L≤25(OH)D<50 nmol/L] and sufficiency [25(OH)D ≥50 nmol/L], respectively. When compared with vitamin D sufficiency, maternal vitamin D deficiency was not associated with preterm birth [odds ratio (OR)=2.69, 95% confidence interval (95% CI)=0.57-12.80], small for gestation age (OR=0.99, 95% CI=0.29-3.46), and low birth weight (OR=1.69, 95% CI=0.34-8.51). Similarly, no significant relationships were found between maternal vitamin D concentrations and anthropometric indices (such as weight, length, BMI) during 0 to 3 years old. Furthermore, LCGM model identified two patterns of offspring growth: stable moderate BMI-Z and early transient BMI-Z groups. Maternal vitamin D levels were higher in the former group than the latter (p=0.037); however, maternal vitamin D status appeared to be unrelated with offspring BMI-Z trajectories in multivariable logistic regression models. Maternal vitamin D deficiency may not be related to adverse pregnancy outcomes as well as offspring growth.

Abstract 19: Maternal B Cell Depletion Lowers Blood Pressure And Improves Fetal Weights In Offspring In A Rat Model Of Preeclampsia

Preeclampsia (PE), new onset hypertension during pregnancy, is the leading cause of death and morbidity for the mother and low birth weight in offspring. PE women have activated B cells producing agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1-AA). We have shown Rituximab (R), used clinically for B cell depletion, lowers mean arterial pressure (MAP), B cells, and AT1-AA in the RUPP rat model of PE. Clinical studies show no untoward effects on offspring of pregnant women maintained on R for treating lymphoma, however, R is not used during PE therefore, effects of maternal B cell depletion on offspring survival and growth in response to placental ischemia is unknown. We hypothesize that R will deplete maternal B cells in RUPP rats without worsening the effect of placental ischemia on pup growth and survival. To test this hypothesis, R (250 mcg/kg) was given on gestation day (GD) 14 via mini-osmotic pump. On GD 19 B cells were measured by flow cytometry, and MAP and pup weights were recorded. A separate group of dams were allowed to deliver, pup weights were recorded within 12 hours and weekly until 16 weeks, and B cells were analyzed. A one-way ANOVA was used for statistical analysis. MAP increased in RUPP 123±2 (n=19, p&lt;0.05) compared to NP controls 101±1 (n=18) and was 106±3 mmHg in RUPP+R (n=8, p&lt;0.05). On GD19, maternal circulating B cells were 16±2 % (n=14) in RUPPs, 8±2 % in NP rats, (n=7, p&lt;0.05), and 5.5±1% gate in RUPP+R (n=5, p&lt;0.05). RUPP male and female offspring were smaller 5.11±0.23 g, 5.19±0.14 g (n=4, n=4) at birth than NP offspring 6.09±0.15 g, 5.87±0.12 g (n=6, p&lt;0.05; n=6, p&lt;0.05) or RUPP+R offspring 5.75±0.24 g, 5.36±0.28 g (n=6, p=0.11; n=6, p=0.67). At 12 weeks, male and female RUPP offspring had elevated circulating B cells (21±3, 20±1 % (n=6; n=9)) compared to NP (1±0.23, 1.6±0.06 % (n=4, p&lt;0.05; n=3, p&lt;0.04)) which was normalized in RUPP+R offspring (0.4±0.1, 0.3±0.03 % gate (n=3, p&lt;0.05; n=8, p&lt;0.05)). At 16 weeks, B cells were comparable in male offspring from NP (0.78±0.09 % (n=10)) and RUPP+R rats (0.80±0.04 % gate (n=3)). Our findings indicate that R lowers maternal circulating B cells and MAP in RUPP rats and improves fetal weight and circulating B cells, indicating that R does not worsen adverse fetal outcomes in response to placental ischemia.

Factors Associated With Weight, Length, and BMI Change in Adolescents' Offspring in Their First Year of Life.

Background: Young maternal age is associated with negative outcomes at birth and with offspring's growth. In low- and middle-income countries, adolescents' offspring growth little has been studied.Objective: To determine the association of maternal sociodemographic characteristics with weight, length, and BMI change in adolescents' offspring in their first year of life.Methods: This is a one-year follow-up study that included adolescent mothers and their offspring from 2010 to 2017. The infant anthropometric variables were performed at birth, 3, 6, and 12 months. Maternal health, pregnancy, and social variables were evaluated as well as birth outcomes. Crude, percentage, Z score, and percentile changes of weight, length, and BMI were evaluated from birth to 1-year-old. Statistical analyses were adjusted by maternal chronological age, socioeconomic status, breastfeeding duration, the timing of introduction of complementary feeding, among other variables.Results: We examined 186 dyads (mother-infant). The median maternal age was 15.5 years, and the mean pre-pregnancy BMI was 20. The mean gestational age was 39.1 weeks for infants, birth weight was 3,039 g, and length at birth was 49.5-cm. Maternal chronological age, the timing of introduction of complementary feeding, socioeconomic status, and maternal occupation were associated with offspring's weight gain at 12 months. Length gain was associated with exclusive breastfeeding. Socioeconomic status and occupation were associated with offspring's BMI change. When performing adjusted multivariable analyses, weight and length at birth were associated weight and BMI at 12 months.Conclusions: Weight at birth may negatively predict infant's weight and BMI changes at 12 months, while length at birth may positively predict the changes. Maternal chronological age, socioeconomic level, occupation, and the timing of the introduction of complementary feeding were associated with the weight change. Only exclusive breastfeeding was associated with length Z-score change in adolescents' offspring in their first 12-months of life.