Growth Of Expertise Research Articles

Socialism, Democracy, Bureaucracy, and Umbrella Organizations

Abstract Among the dilemmas faced by labor, socialist, and other movements of the subaltern classes striving to change society over the past two centuries, three are discussed here: forms of ownership, bureaucracy and “big tent” formulas for both unity of the working class broadly defined, and alliances with movements of independent owners or undefined class status. Examples are drawn from various countries (France, Italy, Britain, the USA, Brazil, Korea) and from international programmatic discussions. Socialists, notably Marxists, shared the radical republican goal of a true democracy of equals, but differed on the extent of collective ownership (state, local, cooperative) needed in the economy, and the definition of privately owned personal goods that insured an individual’s dignity and independence. The rise and contraction of capitalist states with social services (“welfare states”) complicated the issue. Such movements also accumulated experiences with the growth of experts and/or bureaucrats, and the means to limit their privileges and transformation into a caste-type elite. Three environments which generate such phenomena are identified: social-democratic and big labor, post-capitalist states and, more recently, nongovernmental organizations. Finally, the author discusses alliances with broader social forces which include working-class and non-working-class interests, and the management of cross-class ideologies such as certain varieties of nationalism, feminism, environmentalism, and anti-tax movements.

Preservice teachers\u2019 expressed awarenesses: emerging threads of retro-spection of learning and pro-spection of teaching

In this paper, we report an enquiry into elementary preservice teachers’ learning, as they engage in doing mathematics for themselves. As a group of researchers working in elementary Initial Teacher Education in English universities, we co-planned and taught sessions on growing pattern generalisation. Following the sessions, interviews of fifteen preservice teachers at two universities focused on their expressed awareness of their approach to the mathematical activity. Preservice teachers’ prospective planning and post-teaching evaluations of similar activities in their classrooms were also examined. We draw on aspects of enactivism and the notion of reflective “spection” in the context of teacher learning, tracing threads between preservice teachers’ retro-spection of learning and pro-spection of teaching. Our analysis indicates that increasing sensitivity to their own embodied processes of generalisation offers opportunities for novice teachers to respond deliberately, rather than to react impulsively, to different pedagogical possibilities. The paper contributes a new dimension to the discussion about the focus of novice elementary school teachers’ retrospective reflection by examining how deliberate retrospective analysis of doing mathematics, and not only of teaching actions, can develop awarenesses that underlie the growth of expertise in mathematics teaching. We argue that engaging preservice teachers in mathematics to support deliberate retrospective analysis of their mathematics learning and prospective consideration of the implications for teaching can enable more critical pedagogical choices.

MRNA Transcription, Translation, and Defects in Developmental Cognitive and Behavioral Disorders.

The growth of expertise in molecular techniques, their application to clinical evaluations, and the establishment of databases with molecular genetic information has led to greater insights into the roles of molecular processes related to gene expression in neurodevelopment and functioning. The goal of this review is to examine new insights into messenger RNA transcription, translation, and cellular protein synthesis and the relevance of genetically determined alterations in these processes in neurodevelopmental, cognitive, and behavioral disorders.

Learning from the past and considering the future of chemicals in the environment

Knowledge of the hazards and associated risks from chemicals discharged to the environment has grown considerably over the past 40 years. This improving awareness stems from advances in our ability to measure chemicals at low environmental concentrations, recognition of a range of effects on organisms, and a worldwide growth in expertise. Environmental scientists and companies have learned from the experiences of the past; in theory, the next generation of chemicals will cause less acute toxicity and be less environmentally persistent and bioaccumulative. However, researchers still struggle to establish whether the nonlethal effects associated with some modern chemicals and substances will have serious consequences for wildlife. Obtaining the resources to address issues associated with chemicals in the environment remains a challenge.

Reimagining the Place of the Professional, before It Is too Late: Five Dystopias and an Oxymoron?

The trustworthiness and expertise of professionals is much in demand even while they are derided as members of slippery, credentialized and self-serving elites. Eliot Friedson’s three ‘logics’ provide a contextual lens for this deconstruction of ‘professional’ and are updated by adding Artificial Intelligence (AI) as putative fourth logic to provide a contextual background—so, Markets, Bureaucracy and AI are seen as alternatives to and influences on professionalism. This context suggests that it may already be too late to save ‘professionals’, but them paper confronts a significant conceptual deficit by using a second interdisciplinary lens, Clarke’s Place Model, to critically deconstruct the ‘place’ of professionals to reimagine a commodious and accessible conceptualization, consisting of five dystopias and a potentially potent oxymoron—inclusive professional. The Place Model is presented as an example of a Geographical Imagination (Massey), combining two conceptions of ‘place’: place as esteem and place as a changing position on the expanding horizons of a career-long growth of expertise. This novel conceptualization is then used to examine the dystopias and potential ideals of ‘professional’.

Theorizing for Maintenance Management Improvements: Using Case Studies from the Icelandic Geothermal Sector

As renewable energy sectors evolve and grow within a country, the need for expertise to maintain its infrastructure grows. Such expertise is often provided by foreign industries. It is in the global interest to facilitate expertise to grow domestically, eventually leading to widespread clusters of industries around a renewable energy sector and a global growth of expertise. This ultimately fast tracks the development in the renewable energy sector since more players become active in developing solutions. In this article the factors influencing domestic development are identified from previous studies conducted within the Icelandic geothermal sector. The cause and effect relationships between the identified factors are then mapped. A system dynamics causal loop diagram based on Icelandic case studies is presented to visualise how the formation of industrial clusters in the renewable energy sector can be initiated. This visualisation, based on the Icelandic geothermal sector, can be of use for other industries in the renewable energy sector who are attempting to conduct their maintenance procedures domestically and increase the rate of innovation within a country.

The Development and Implementation of a Hospital Based Paediatric Orthopaedic Nursing Transition Program

Within Australia and the rest of the world paediatric orthopaedic nursing as a subspeciality nursing workforce faces challenges due to a lack of formal education programs that support the development of knowledge. Despite these challenges the need to ensure the availability of competent and knowledgeable nursing staff to positively contribute to health care outcomes remains unchanged. Thus a need has arisen to develop locally implemented education programs. A multi-tiered paediatric orthopaedic nursing transition program which incorporates work based learning processes combined, with formal assessment components, has been designed utilising Benner's "theory of novice to expert" to facilitate the growth of experts in the clinical setting driven by the requirements of individual clinical settings. The implementation of this program has led to increased confidence in the clinical setting for nursing staff which has positively influenced the care of children and their families in the orthopaedic service.

Making Practice Visible: A collaborative self-study of tiered teaching in teacher education

In this article we document the impact of tiered teaching on making the complexity of pedagogy transparent when teaching science education to pre-service primary teachers. Teaching science methods classes together and researching our teaching has enabled us to reframe our assumptions and move beyond the simplistic and misleading idea that teacher education is the modeling of exemplary practice. This self-study has evolved over three years. We were faced with the tension between modeling exemplary practice to teach science education and science content and making our teacher education practices explicit to our students. Tiered teaching has allowed us to manage this tension. Four major themes emerged from this self-study: the cost of tiered teaching; the shift in priority to less science education and more teacher education; our own growth in expertise; and the transformation of our practice.

Clinical neurophysiology training and certification in the United States: 2000

To the Editor: Burns et al. reviewed clinical neurophysiology (CNP) training in the United States.1 Since the approval of CNP as an added qualification examination and the establishment of CNP fellowships, EMG and EEG training have changed. We agree that there is limited exposure to CNP during residency and that additional training is often required. However, as currently structured, we believe CNP training has become too diluted, creating CNP generalists rather than focused experts, as was the case formerly. Burns et al. acknowledge that CNP training is not designed to make experts in each CNP area, but rather provides greater knowledge and skill than obtained during residency. One might ask where future EMG and EEG experts will come from, if not from CNP fellowships. The majority of residents pursuing fellowship training still do so in preparation for an academic career.2 It would appear unlikely that many candidates will opt for training beyond one additional fellowship year. We have had the opportunity to train fellows in 6-month, 12-month, and 2-year programs devoted solely to EMG/neuromuscular disorders. The largest growth in expertise occurs between 6 and 12 months, when fellows consolidate their knowledge, increase their confidence and procedural skills, and solve difficult problems independently. As currently structured, EMG training is particularly handicapped in CNP fellowships, because the equivalent of 12 months EMG training cannot …

Editorial Comment: Extending the Domain of Minimally Invasive Surgery: Bladder Cancer

INEVER THOUGHT OF MYSELF as either becoming actively involved with the Endourological Society or of contributing to the Journal of Endourology. At the Annual Meeting of the Endourological Society several years ago, however, I was asked to participate in a debate on the merits of endourologic treatment of upper tract urothelial cancers. Although asked to defend open surgery and realizing that the outcome of treatment of these cancers is largely contingent on the biology of the disease, I couldn’t help but be impressed with the success that has been achieved with endourologic approaches in selected situations, given the many advances in instrumentation and growth in expertise of those who have been courageous enough to implement the new technologies. Since then, I have been witness to the tremendous growth in endourologic and laparoscopic techniques in the treatment of an ever-growing variety of urologic conditions. Although I have not performed laparoscopic procedures and have limited my endourologic expertise to the simplest of endoscopic procedures, I have not been deterred from encouraging an increasingly extensive application of such techniques, sending my residents for fellowships in minimally invasive surgery and then bringing them back as faculty members to expand this area to as many aspects of the diagnosis and treatment of urologic conditions as their imagination permits. I still was surprised when Dr. Arthur Smith asked me to write an editorial for this special issue on endourologic oncology for the Journal of Endourology. I suspect that in his own subtle way he was telling me, “Well, there you are. You’d better start to change your way of thinking, since we can accomplish the same effective treatment with endourologic and laparoscopic approaches as can be done with open surgery and minimize treatment effects on quality of life.” In many respects, I agree. However, we are not yet at the finish line in treating many of these conditions even though good technology is available. To a large extent, this is probably attributable both to our inability to predict the intrinsic biologic potential of many of these conditions and the limitations in therapeutic options that might otherwise make the application of some of these new technologies more effective. The articles I have been asked to review are illustrative of this. The articles by Pietrow and Smith1 and by Grob and Macchia2 describe transurethral approaches in treating muscle-invasive bladder cancers without resorting to the more traditional cystectomy. Using techniques incorporating either laser or extensive transurethral resection of the tumor, respectively, these authors are able to preserve the bladder and, presumably, normal voiding function. The caveat for each of these ideas is that tumors subjected to these approaches must be highly selected. Although they are muscle invasive, all cancer cells must be eradicated, as confirmed histologically on repeat TUR (a requirement even when laser is the primary treatment). Moreover, success is predicted on the assumption that the treatments themselves do not result in voiding dysfunction, which would make retention of the bladder (with the concomitant risk of tumor recurrence and progression) an unproductive exercise. Neither of these considerations, though of substantial importance, has as yet been effectively and unequivocally addressed. In all of the studies reviewed by Grob and Macchia,2 the initial apparently successful treatment of muscle-invasive tumors by transurethral resection did not necessarily translate into durable tumor-free survival. Generally, one third of such patients had tumor recurrence and required salvage cystectomy, and 10% to 20% of such patients had tumor progression with metastases and succumbed to their disease. Of those who retained their bladders, characterization of voiding function was often not discussed. Although many of these patients had no evidence of cancer on second transurethral resection, supporting the impression that no residual tumor was present, many would develop cancer elsewhere in their bladder and require adjunctive therapies or bladder removal. Often, the adjunctive therapies themselves (radiation, local or systemic chemotherapy, repetitive laser treatment, or transurethral resection) would lead to substantive local or systemic side effects, compromise voiding function or other measures of quality of life, and still not result in cure or durable tumor-free survival. The question that remains is whether such patients were better served by undergoing multiple diagnostic and treatment procedures when they presumably might have been at a curable phase of their disease such that definitive treatment (cystectomy) and continent and possible orthotopic diversion could have been done and a reasonable, if not perfect, quality of ex-

The Future of Army Professionalism: A Need for Renewal and Redefinition

The that won the battles of the Gulf War in 1991 was one of the most professional ever fielded by America. As General Schwarzkopf commented, We could have traded equipment with the Iraquis and still won. [1] And when that returned home, it was welcomed by a supportive, even adoring, public. Now, almost one decade later, the situation has changed dramatically. During the past nine years, the US has undergone radical changes--major force and budget reductions, revised modernization programs, and successive base realignments and closures. All were intended by design to adapt the institution to the post-Cold War geopolitical situation. But there are many indications that the result is an quite unlike the victor of the Gulf War battles. It is instead an of decreasing effectiveness, one which suffers from a weakening relationship with the American public and, of more concern, with its own members. The last decade has been one of massive change to which the profession has yet to adapt fully. Simply stated, the end of the Cold War, which roughly coincided with the culmination of other shifts in the organization of Western, postindustrial societies, has drastically altered the expectations of where and how the profession of arms will apply its expertise. Today, in this new interwar period, [2] the is expected to operate effectively across the entire spectrum of violence, from major theater wars to domestic disaster relief. Further, it must be prepared to conduct these varied operations worldwide in any physical and political environment, and to do so in very rapid order. With these shifts in society's expectations came the need for a huge expansion in the profession's knowledge base and in the application of that expert knowledge to new situations. Such growth in expertise should have generated changes throughout the Army's leadership and management systems--from organizational structure to app lied technology,, from measures of readiness to measures of effectiveness, and from military training systems to professional military education. The is faltering, however, in its attempts to adapt to these stark changes; this inability to adapt is itself a significant manifestation of a decline in effectiveness. Unfortunately, this potentially dangerous situation remains, at the systemic level, largely unrecognized by the institution. Even worse, it is not clear that there is currently within the officer corps of the a consensus on just what Army Professionalism is, nor a common language with which to analyze and discuss it. Absent such analysis and dialogue, the is looking elsewhere for solutions to the decline in effectiveness by studying individually the recurring symptoms as they reach crisis proportions, such as recruiting shortfalls, an exodus of captains, unfunded adaptations in structure and technology, and leadership failures. There are two ways to look at the Army. The first is as a large, bureaucratic organization. The second is as a profession. The has, over past decades, increasingly moved toward using organizational concepts for decisionmaking to lead, design, and structure the institution's systems, and away from using professional concepts to do so. Such is the case today: operations research, efficiency goals, outsourcing, reengineering, and bonuses dominate the institution's analyses and solutions. As such, efficiency is a dominant goal, surpassing military effectiveness. Due to an excessively organizational perspective, the has borrowed aspects of human resource systems from corporations, and then wonders why the members of the profession are acting like employees. The is missing (and thereby losing) competitions with other professions and organizations at the boundaries of its expertise. And, it is resisting change because that threatens present force structure, rather than viewing the needed change in th e context of how it affects the Army's expertise and jurisdiction, and thus its professionalism. …

Growth of expertise as a result of treaty-making

The 1977 Protocols additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, adopted after a complex process of preparatory work and negotiations in various fora, have not been formally applicable in many armed conflicts. Yet it would not be appropriate to say that they have not stood the test of reality. One of the most important effects of these instruments on State practice has been to generate a large number of experts on the subject in all regions of the world, sharing knowledge on the interpretation of relevant rules and facing the challenge of their implementation.

Judgement of Traffic Scenes: The Role of Danger and Difficulty

The growth of expertise is frequently accompanied by an increased role being played by expectancy and anticipatory behaviour. Such influences on behaviour should be readily observable in the ways participants construe task-related scenarios, and distinguishable from more general experience gained from age. This paper reports an extensive study of how matched groups of motorists conceptualize the danger involved in various video-taped driving scenarios. Results demonstrate separable effects of both age and driving experience on the factor structure of drivers' rating of such stimuli. In particular, different emphases are placed on the danger and difficulty depicted in driving scenes. Younger drivers (irrespective of driving experience) concentrate on the danger rather than on the difficulty involved in carrying out particular manoeuvres, but then under-rate the dangers encountered.