Earthworm Growth Research Articles

A review on effect of different herbicides on growth, reproduction and biochemical markers of earthworm

Herbicides, widely used in modern agriculture, play a pivotal role in controlling weeds and enhancing crop productivity. However, their effects on non-target soil organisms, such as earthworms, are a growing concern due to the ecological importance of these organisms in soil fertility and structure. This review examines the impact of various herbicides on earthworm growth, reproduction, and biochemical markers. Studies reveal that herbicide exposure can adversely affect growth rates, cocoon production, and hatchling success in different earthworm species. Furthermore, biochemical markers such as oxidative stress enzymes, metabolic activity, and biomarkers of neurotoxicity provide insights into sub-lethal effects and underlying physiological mechanisms. The variation in sensitivity among species is influenced by herbicide type, concentration, and exposure duration. Understanding these impacts is essential for developing sustainable agricultural practices that minimize harm to soil biodiversity. This review highlights the need for eco-toxicological evaluations to guide safe herbicide use.

Enantioselective Toxicity of Ibuprofen to Earthworms: Unraveling the Effect and Mechanism on Enhanced Toxicity of S-Ibuprofen Over R-Ibuprofen.

With the global implementation of wastewater reuse, accurately assessing the soil ecological risk of chiral pollutants from wastewater necessitates a comprehensive understanding of their enantioselective toxicity to soil animals. Ibuprofen (IBU) is the most prevalent chiral pharmaceutical in municipal wastewater. However, its enantioselective toxicity toward soil animals and the underlying mechanism remain largely unknown. In this study, the toxicity of IBU enantiomers, S-IBU and R-IBU, to earthworms was evaluated at environmentally relevant concentrations (10 and 100 μg/L), simulating wastewater reuse for irrigation. The results demonstrated that IBU adversely affects the growth, reproduction, regeneration, defense systems, and metabolic processes of earthworms, with S-IBU exhibiting stronger toxic effects than R-IBU. The bioavailability assessment revealed that S-IBU was more readily absorbed by earthworms and converted to its enantiomer within earthworms than R-IBU. This is consistent with molecular docking results showing that S-IBU had stronger affinities for functional proteins associated with xenobiotic transport and transformation. The findings of this study highlight that S-IBU poses a higher risk than R-IBU to soil organisms under wastewater reuse scenarios and that the chirality of chemical pollutants in wastewater deserves more attention when implementing wastewater reuse. In addition, our study underscores that the differences in bioavailability and bioactivity may account for the enantioselective toxicity of chiral pollutants.

Comprehensive tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole toxicity evaluation to earthworm Dendrobaena veneta through life-cycle, behavioral and biochemical parameters.

Veterinary antibiotics are widely spread in the environment, however, the knowledge about their impact on soil key species is still limited. This study evaluated the short-term and long-term effects of tetracycline (TC), ciprofloxacin (CIP) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) (1-500 mg kg) on earthworm Dendrobaena veneta by measuring multiple parameters (survival, growth, reproduction, behavior and biochemical responses). Neither antibiotic induced acute toxicity and low mortality was observed after chronic exposure. TC and CIP had a negligible effect on the earthworm's weight from the 6th week of exposure, SMX inhibited the earthworm growth when was present in the range of 50-500 mg kg-1. In parallel, SMX reduced earthworm reproduction at environmentally relevant concentrations. Antibiotics altered superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR) and gluthathione-S-transferase (GST) activities and induced lipid peroxidation. Overall, earthworms showed no apparent acute response at environmentally relevant concentrations except for avoidance behavior; after long-term exposure earthworms experienced biochemical, physiological, and reproductive impairments and reduced survival at high soil contamination.

Analysis of Earthworm (Lumbricus rubellus) Growth Due to the Addition of Fruit Waste Pulp to Feed

Earthworms are a group of animals that live in soil and have a segmented body, bilaterally symmetrical, and covered by a transparent cuticle, which protects from physical and chemical disturbances. One of the factors that influences the growth of earthworms is the availability of food substances in the media where they live. Research on the analysis of the increase in the number and total weight of earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus) due to the provision of fruit waste in feed has been carried out in 2023. This research aims to analyse the increase in the number and total weight of earthworms due to the application of fruit waste to the media where earthworms live. Research data was analysed using variance analysis. In this study, the results were obtained: (1) fruit waste pulp (papaya and banana) added to feed had a significant effect on increasing the number of earthworms, (2) fruit waste pulp added to the feed can increase the total weight of earthworms, (3) Giving 2 liters of fruit waste to the feed results in a higher number and total weight of earthworms than other levels of fruit waste pulp.

Negative effects of polyvinyl chloride microplastics and the plasticizer DnOP on earthworms: Co-exposure enhances oxidative stress and immune system damage in earthworms

Polyvinyl chloride microplastics (PVC-MPs) are the most used plastics in agriculture. Di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), a commonly used plasticizer in PVC-MPs, may be released from plastic and coexist with PVC-MPs. The effects of DnOP alone and coexisting with PVC-MPs are not known. We evaluated the effects of DnOP or/and PVC-MPs on earthworms, and used integrated biomarker response (IBR) to assess the combined toxicity. Molecular docking and transcriptomics were employed for further interpretation of possible toxicity mechanisms. The results showed that exposure to DnOP or/and PVC-MPs caused oxidative damage and interfered with reproduction, adversely affecting the growth and reproduction of earthworms. IBR results showed that toxicity of DnOP+PVC-MPs exposure was greater than that of DnOP and PVC-MPs exposure alone. DnOP has the ability to directly bind to proteins that are associated with antioxidant enzymes and alter their structure. The transcriptomics results indicated that DnOP and PVC-MPs exposure alone mainly affected growth and development-related pathways, while co-exposure affected apoptosis and immune system-related pathways more. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive investigation of the combined toxicity of DnOP or/and PVC-MPs to earthworms from different perspectives, which gives scientifically sound evidence for the rational use of plasticizers DnOP and PVC-MPs.

Growth media change Eisenia fetida epithelium thickness: implications for improving earthworm welfare in vermicomposting systems.

Because the earthworm tegument represents their first barrier against environmental aggressions, we hypothesised that substrate-induced changes in earthworm growth would also alter the morphology of this protective layer. Therefore, a histological and morphometric study was performed on Eisenia fetida specimens that have been grown in five different organic residues: cow manure, horse manure, grape marc, coffee grounds, and a mixture of coffee grounds and cooking oil. The results showed that, across all treatments, both cuticle and epidermis were significantly thicker in the pre-clitellar region than after the clitellum, attributed to the fact that the former region is responsible for breaking up the soil. Notably, the growing media significantly altered the thickness of these two integumentary layers, and the greatest thicknesses were measured in grape marc and in the mixture coffee grounds + cooking oil, which makes them suitable organic residues for vermicomposting. By contrary, a significant epidermal thinning was observed when growing on coffee grounds alone, clearly indicating that it is a hostile environment for earthworms. Overall, these results reveal that tegument thickness can be used not only as a trait indicator of substrate quality but also of earthworm welfare, and it should be integrated in future toxicity assessment and captive breeding guidelines.

Sustainable pre-treatment of tempeh industry wastewater: Efficiency of vermifiltration in pollutant mitigation and compost production

This study investigated the efficacy of vermifiltration (VF) as a sustainable pre-treatment method for tempeh industry wastewater. Three lab-scale VF reactors using different earthworm feeds - cow dung (VF-1), tofu dregs (VF-2), and a combination of both (VF-3) - were used to evaluate their ability to reduce chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅), and total suspended solids (TSS), as well as pH. VF-3 exhibited superior performance, achieving reductions of 94.51 % in COD, 95.59 % in BOD₅, and 88.59 % in TSS with maintaining pH values between 6.73 and 6.87. The resulting vermicompost (VC) had high nutrient content, particularly in the VF-3 reactor, with values of 7.66 % C-organic, 1.19 % nitrogen (N), and a C/N ratio of 10.33, phosphate (P) 1.65 %, and potassium (K) of 0.37 %. Additionally, significant earthworm growth was noted in VF-3, suggesting enhanced organic matter breakdown. These results indicate that VF technology not only effectively reduces pollutants in wastewater but also produces nutrient-rich compost, offering a dual benefit for sustainable wastewater management in the tempeh industry.

Effect of different combinations of feed material of cattle dung with kitchen waste on growth rate of earthworm Eutyphoeus waltoni Michaelsen

In this study the effect of different combinations of animal dung (buffalo, cow, and goat) with kitchen wastes (vegetable wastes and banana peels) on the growth rate of Eutyphoeus waltoni during vermicomposting has been investigated. To identify the most potential feed material combination for enhancement of earthworm growth, the experiment was conducted using different combination of animal dung with kitchen waste as well as dung alone. Significant growth rate of Eutyphoeus waltoni was observed in all the binary combinations of animal dung with vegetable waste and banana peels whereas; the maximum growth rate was observed in the combination of buffalo dung and vegetable waste present in (1:1) ratio. It may be due to the balanced nutrient profile provided by the mixture, which enhances the decomposition process and creates an ideal environment for earthworm growth. The feed material combination of buffalo dung and vegetable waste in (1:1) ratio is suitable for better growth and development of earthworm Eutyphoeus waltoni which not only enhances the growth rate of earthworm but also contribute to efficient waste management by converting organic waste into nutrient-rich vermicompost.

Escaping the hot seat: consuming decomposing Cannabis sativa slows weight gain and heat escape behaviour in the earthworm, Eisenia fetida

Given the rise in cannabis ( Cannabis sativa L .) cultivation, and the absence of disposal guidelines in Canada and other countries, the toxicological impacts of its secondary metabolites on non-target organisms via ingestion are important to understand. Due to the unique chemicals found in C. sativa, sublethal effects, such as those on behaviours and growth, must also be considered. We fed a generalist detritivore, the red wiggler earthworm ( Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826)), diets composed of hemp or two other crop plants (lettuce or basil), or combinations thereof, over 28 days to measure effects on earthworm survival, growth, and behavioural responses to stressful stimuli (high heat and light). Earthworms fed only hemp gained weight, albeit less than those on other diets, with no effects on their survival or response to light. However, hemp consumption led to slower escape times and speeds from a heat stimulus, indicating potential sublethal effects. By using hemp genotypes with low cannabinoid concentrations, our results offer a conservative estimate of the potential impact of hemp cultivation or disposal of C. sativa on invertebrates such as earthworms. This research underscores the importance of developing accurate risk models for exposure to crop phytochemicals in non-target species.

Advancing Soil Risk Assessment: A Novel Earthworm Cocoon Test with a Complementary Toxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic Modeling Approach.

In the current European Union pesticide risk assessment for soil organisms, effect endpoints from laboratory studies (Tier 1) and field studies (higher-tier risk assessment) are compared with predicted environmental concentrations in soil, derived from the proposed use pattern. The simple but conservative initial Tier 1 risk assessment considers a range of worst-case assumptions. In contrast, the higher-tier assessment focuses on specific conditions tested in the corresponding field study. Effect modeling, such as toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic (TKTD) modeling, is considered a promising future tool to address uncertainties in soil risk assessment, such as extrapolation to different ecological, pedo-climatical, or agronomical situations, or to serve as an intermediate tier for potential refinement of the risk assessment. For the implementation of TKTD modeling in soil organism risk assessment, data on earthworm growth and reproduction over time are required, which are not provided by the standard Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 222 laboratory test. The underlying study with carbendazim presents a new earthworm cocoon test design, based on the OECD 222 test, to provide the necessary data as input for TKTD modeling. This proposed test design involves destructive samplings at days 7, 14, 21, and 28, enabling the determination of growth, cocoon number, and the number of juveniles hatched per cocoon in 7-day intervals. The new cocoon test allowed the disentanglement of the toxic effect of carbendazim in earthworms: At the highest concentration prominent effects on growth and reproductive output were observed, and the number of cocoons was significantly reduced compared to control. The results highlighted different physiological modes of action: effect on growth via higher maintenance costs as a primary mode of action as well as a reduced number of cocoons (effect on reproduction) and a lower number of juveniles hatching from each cocoon (hazard during oogenesis) as a secondary mode of action. We provide an example of how this new test's data can be used to feed a dynamic energy budget theory-TKTD model of Eisenia fetida. We also validate it against the original OECD 222 test design, outlining its potential future use in soil risk assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2377-2386. © 2024 The Author(s). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Comparative assessment of domestic wastewater treatment via Vermifiltration through various filter bed material.

Vermifilter (VF) is considered sustainable for rural areas; however, filter media is the most important but has been explored less. This study evaluated the performance of vermifilters in treating domestic wastewater (DWW) using various filter media, including areca nutshell (AS), rice straw (RS), dry leaves (DL), and chicken eggshells (ES). We compared the results with four different reactors: R1 (AS), R2 (RS), R3 (DL), and R4 (ES). DWW was applied with a hydraulic loading rate (HLR) of 1 m3/m2/d with Eisenia fetida earthworm species. The results showed the removal of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) by 82%, 76%, 73%, and 87%; chemical oxygen demand (COD) by 75%, 73%, 72%, and 88%; phosphate by 36%, 25%, 27%, and 50%; sulfate by 56%, 54%, 53%, and 71% in R1, R2, R3, and R4, respectively. Simultaneously, R4 experienced a fivefold reduction in total bacteria and a sixfold reduction in total coliform. Moreover, the most exceptional filter media for vermifiltration is eggshells for the earthworm's growth and treatment efficacy.

Evaluation of substrates for optimizing vermicomposting products

The high global market value of fresh mushrooms implies high importance of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) as a by-product that poses environmental challenges, if not properly treated. Reported studies demonstrate the positive effects of SMS on earthworm growth and reproduction, particularly when combined with other substrates such as cow dung (CD). This study utilized SMS and CD as substrates in varying ratios. A total of 375 young non-clitellated Eisenia fetida were randomly assigned to plastic containers, ensuring similar average individual worm weight, and maintained at 50% to 60% moisture. Weekly observations were made on earthworm average weight, cocoon production, and hatchling count. The growth and reproduction of earthworms differed significantly among treatments, with Treatment 3 (T3) (50:50 SMS and CD) showing the highest growth and Treatment 5 (T5) (0:100 SMS and CD) the lowest. Changes in pH, EC, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total organic carbon (TOC), C/N ratio, and total available phosphorus (TAP) were observed over the experimental period, indicating dynamic nutrient dynamics within the substrates. The exchangeable potassium decreased with increasing proportions of CD, while the exchangeable sodium content showed variation across treatments. The observed variations can be attributed to differences in initial substrate composition and microbial activity during vermicomposting.

Compost quality, earthworm activities and microbial communities in biochar-augmented vermicomposting of dewatered activated sludge: the role of biochar particle size

Vermicomposting utilizes the synergistic effect of earthworms with microorganisms to accelerate the stabilization of organic matter in biowastes. Nevertheless, the exact mechanism behind the maturity of vermicompost and the growth of earthworms exposed to biochar of varying particle sizes remains unclear. This study presents an investigation of the effect of biochar particle size on earthworm (Eisenia fetida) survival, microbial diversity, and the quality of vermicompost products. To address these issues, pelletized dewatered sludge samples from a municipal sewage treatment plant were amended with pine-based biochar with particle sizes of 1–2 mm, 25–75 μm, 200 nm, and 60 nm as the substrate for vermicomposting. This study revealed that the addition of millimeter-scale biochar and micron-scale biochar significantly promoted the degradation of organic matter since the organic matter in the treatment with 1–2 mm biochar at the end of the vermicomposting experiment decreased by 12.6%, which was equivalent to a 1.9-fold increase compared with that of the control. Excessive nanopowdering of nanobiochar significantly affected the survival of earthworms and led to 24.4–33.3% cumulative mortality, while millimeter-scale (mm) biochar and micron-scale (μm) biochar achieved zero mortality. The findings of this study could be used for evaluating the potential impact of nanoscale biochar to earthworms and guiding biochar-augmented vermicomposting.Graphical

Vermifiltration as a green solution to promote digestate reuse in agriculture in small-scale farms

Digestates from low-tech digesters need to be post-treated to ensure their safe agricultural reuse. This study evaluated, for the first time, vermifiltration as a post-treatment for the digestate from a low-tech digester implemented in a small-scale farm, treating cattle manure and cheese whey under psychrophilic conditions. Vermifiltration performance was monitored in terms of solids, organic matter, nutrients, and pathogens removal efficiency. In addition, the growth of earthworms (Eisenia foetida) and their role in the process was evaluated. Finally, the vermicompost and the effluent of the vermifilter were characterized in order to assess their potential reuse in agriculture.Vermifilters showed high removal efficiency of chemical oxygen demand (55–90%), total solids (60–80%), ammonium nitrogen (83–97%), and phosphate-P (28–49%). Earthworms effectively grew and reproduced on digestate (i.e. earthworms number increased by 183%), enhancing the vermifiltration performance, while reducing clogging and odour-related issues. Both the vermicompost and effluent produced complied with legislation limits established for soil improvers and wastewater for fertigation, respectively. Indeed, there was an absence of pathogens and non-detectable heavy metals concentrations. Vermifiltration may be thus considered a suitable post-treatment option for the digestate from low-tech digesters, allowing for its safe agricultural reuse and boosting the circular bioeconomy in small-scale farms.

Micro/nanoplastics pollution poses a potential threat to soil health.

Micro/nanoplastic (MNP) pollution in soil ecosystems has become a growing environmental concern globally. However, the comprehensive impacts of MNPs on soil health have not yet been explored. We conducted a hierarchical meta-analysis of over 5000 observations from 228 articles to assess the broad impacts of MNPs on soil health parameters (represented by 20 indicators relevant to crop growth, animal health, greenhouse gas emissions, microbial diversity, and pollutant transfer) and whether the impacts depended on MNP properties. We found that MNP exposure significantly inhibited crop biomass and germination, and reduced earthworm growth and survival rate. Under MNP exposure, the emissions of soil greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O, and CH4) were significantly increased. MNP exposure caused a decrease in soil bacteria diversity. Importantly, the magnitude of impact of the soil-based parameters was dependent on MNP dose and size; however, there is no significant difference in MNP type (biodegradable and conventional MNPs). Moreover, MNPs significantly reduced As uptake by plants, but promoted plant Cd accumulation. Using an analytical hierarchy process, we quantified the negative impacts of MNP exposure on soil health as a mean value of -10.2% (-17.5% to -2.57%). Overall, this analysis provides new insights for assessing potential risks of MNP pollution to soil ecosystem functions.

Microbial quality and macronutrient of vermicompost produced by Eisenia fetida in dairy wastewater solids

Abstract. Marlina ET, Hidayati YA, Harlia E, Badruzzaman DZ, Meynadhea N, Rahayu NA. 2024. Microbial quality and macronutrient of vermicompost produced by Eisenia fetida in dairy wastewater solids. Biodiversitas 25: 2729-2737. Dairy Wastewater Solids (DWS) contain enough nutrients for the growth of earthworms and utilize the nutritional requirements of livestock waste for growth. The growth of earthworms affects the quality of vermicompost or castings that are useful as organic fertilizers. This research aimed to determine the growth of Eisenia fertida using DWS as a growth medium, and its effect on the quality of vermicompost produced. The organic material decomposed in DWS by indigenous microorganisms and earthworms can convert DWS into organic fertilizer through composting. Rice straw was added as a carbon source to obtain the ideal C/N ratio for the growth of decomposing microorganisms. Good growth of decomposer microorganisms can increase the availability of nutrients in DWS as a source of plant nutrition. E. fetida was used in vermicomposting for 14 days after the initial decomposition phase had passed. This research used the experimental method of Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three stocking density treatments (T1: 6.6 g/L; T2: 13.3 g/L; T3: 20.0 g/L ) and six replications. The results showed that higher stocking density promoted an increase in the biomass weight of earthworms. Various indigenous microorganisms act as decomposers and work with earthworms to convert organic matter into inorganic matter as a plant nutrient. The stocking density treatment had no significant effect on vermicompost production, total nitrogen content, and P2O5 vermicompost but had a significant effect on K2O, Ca, Mg, population of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria (NFB) and Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB). Vermicomposting, DWS, and rice straw mixture produced vermicompost with high functional microbial and macronutrient concentrations.

Cultivation of earthworms and analysis of associated bacterial communities during earthworms’ growth using two types of agricultural wastes

Earthworm cultivation can effectively promote the resource utilization of agricultural waste. The efficient utilization of agricultural waste by earthworms mainly depends on the microbial communities in the guts. This study used silkworm excrement and cow manure as substrates for earthworm cultivation and investigated the associated bacterial communities during earthworms’ growth. The survival rate of earthworms remained above 89% after 21 days of feeding with the two substrates. Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes constituted the predominant bacterial communities in earthworm growth, accounting for over 81% of the relative abundance in both guts and vermicompost. The bacteria richness and diversity in the foregut and midgut of earthworm were lower than those in the hindgut. The prediction function of intestinal bacterial communities of earthworms cultured with two substrates mainly involved biosynthesis, decomposition and energy production.

Analisis Deskriptif Pertumbuhan dan Perkembangan Cacing Tanah (Lumbricus rubellus) dengan Variasi Pakan Ampas Tahu dan Kotoran Sapi

Earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus) are beneficial invertebrates that reduce waste, animal feed, and cosmetic raw material. The research was conducted at Ruyani Life Sciences Learning Resources (SBIH), Bengkulu (Ruyani et al., 2018), from September to November 2023. The design of this study adopted a Complete Randomized Design (RAL) consisting of five experimental groups with different feed comparisons (in %).Earthworm growth and development are optimized in their natural habitat, which includes temperatures ranging from 15℃ to 25℃, soil moisture and air availability between 15% and 30%, soil pH levels between 6.0 and 7.2, and the presence of organic matter for food. The study fed earthworms a diet consisting of tofu residues and cow dung in different proportions: (a) 100% tofu residues and 0% cow dung; (b) 75% tofu residues and 25% cow dung; (c) 50% tofu residues and 50% cow dung; and (d) 25% tofu residues and 75% cow dung. The research findings indicated that the ideal feed composition for maximizing earthworm biomass production is 25% tofu residues and 75% cow dung. Additionally, the most effective ratio of individual earthworms throughout a four-week maintenance period is 75% tofu residues and 25% cow dung.

Elucidating earthworm growth and fecundity in vermiculturing, and its bioefficiency in vermicomposting

Elucidating earthworm growth and fecundity in vermiculturing, and its bioefficiency in vermicomposting

The Effect of Adding Vegetable Waste to Feed on The Growth of Earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus)

Earthworms are invertebrate animals that live in the soil and are hermaphroditic. This animal requires organic materials as food. Research on the analysis of the growth of earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus) due to the addition of vegetable waste to feed has been carried out in Pagutan Village, Mataram City. This research aims to analyze (1) the effect of adding vegetable waste to feed on the number of earthworms, (2) the effect of adding vegetable waste to feed on the total weight of earthworms, (3) the best dose of vegetable waste so that earthworms can grow optimally. The earthworm growth parameters measured were the total number and total weight of earthworms at the end of maintenance. Research data was analyzed using analysis of variance. In this study it can be concluded: (1) adding vegetable waste (spinach, water kale, mustard greens and lettuce) to feed can increase the total number of earthworms, (2) adding vegetable waste to feed can increase the total weight of earthworms, (3) giving 2 liters of vegetable waste provided better growth results for earthworms compared to other treatments.