Growth Factor-differentiated PC12 Cells Research Articles

Evaluating the Protective Effects of Thymoquinone on Methamphetamine-induced Toxicity in an In Vitro Model Based on Differentiated PC12 Cells.

Methamphetamine (Meth) is a highly addictive stimulant. Its potential neurotoxic effects are mediated through various mechanisms, including oxidative stress and the initiation of the apoptotic process. Thymoquinone (TQ), obtained from Nigella sativa seed oil, has extensive antioxidant and anti-apoptotic properties. This study aimed to investigate the potential protective effects of TQ against Meth-induced toxicity by using an in vitro model based on nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells. Cell differentiation was assessed by detecting the presence of a neuronal marker with flow cytometry. The effects of Meth exposure were evaluated in the in vitro neuronal cell-based model via the determination of cell viability (in an MTT assay) and apoptosis (by annexin/propidium iodide staining). The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as the levels of glutathione (GSH) and dopamine, were also determined. The model was used to determine the protective effects of 0.5, 1 and 2 μM TQ against Meth-induced toxicity (at 1 mM). The results showed that TQ reduced Meth-induced neurotoxicity, possibly through the inhibition of ROS generation and apoptosis, and by helping to maintain GSH and dopamine levels. Thus, the impact of TQ treatment on Meth-induced neurotoxicity could warrant further investigation.

Investigation of effects of quercetin and low-level laser therapy in cisplatin-induced in vitro peripheral neuropathy model.

Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is one of the dose-dependent side effects of cisplatin. The loss of sensory neurons is observed in CIPN. There are many methods to minimalize CIPN symptoms such as pharmacological agents and photobiostimulation but the mechanisms of these methods are unclear. Our study is aimed at determining the effects of quercetin and low-level laser therapy (LLLT) in undifferentiated and nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells in cisplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy. PC12 cells with cisplatin were co-treated with quercetin and LLLT (diode pumped all-solid-state laser, 670 nm, output 500 mW, and the laser beam surface area was 1.96 cm2). The effects of quercetin and LLLT on GAP-43 and Synapsin I expressions were analyzed by real-time PCR, cell viability was assessed by MTT assay, Annexin and dead assay measured the induction of apoptosis, the alterations in mitopotential were assessed by mitopotential assay, and lactate dehydrogenase activity in cells was analyzed. All experiment data were analyzed by the Tukey test and applied as a post hoc test, and statistical evaluation was made. Our results indicated that cisplatin increased apoptosis (24,210 ± 2189, 46,504 ± 8246) cells, mitochondrial dysfunction (44,312 ± 0.751, 68,788 ± 1271), and LDH activity (62,821 ± 8245, 87,838 ± 8116). Furthermore, it decreased cell viability (42,447 ± 1780, 36,140 ± 3682) and inhibited GAP-43 and Synapsin I genes in undifferentiated and differentiated PC12 cells. However, apoptosis, the alterations in mitopotential, and lactate dehydrogenase activity decreased by applications of quercetin and LLLT. It has been recommended that quercetin and low-level laser therapy roles on cisplatin-induced peripheral neuropathy should be investigated in vivo, and the relationship between quercetin and low-level laser therapy should be molecular.

Cultivation Factors That Affect Amyloid-β Aggregation Inhibitory Activity in Perilla frutescens var. crispa.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is thought to be caused by the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the brain. Aβ begins to aggregate approximately 20 years before the expression of its symptoms. Previously, we developed a microliter-scale high-throughput screening (MSHTS) system for inhibitors against Aβ aggregation using quantum dot nanoprobes. Using this system, we also found that plants in the Lamiaceae, particularly Perilla frutescens var. crispa, have high activity. The cultivation environment has the potential to enhance Aβ aggregation inhibitory activity in plants by changing their metabolism. Here, we report on cultivation factors that affected the activity of P. frutescens var. crispa cultivated in three fields under different cultivation conditions. The results revealed that the activity of P. frutescens var. crispa harvested just before flowering was highest. Interestingly, the activity of wind-shielded plants that were cultivated to prevent exposure to wind, was reduced to 1/5th of plants just before flowering. Furthermore, activity just before flowering increased following appropriate nitrogen fertilization and at least one week of drying from the day before harvest. In addition, we confirmed that the P. frutescens var. crispa leaf extracts suppressed Aβ-induced toxicity in nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells. In this study, we demonstrated that flowering, wind, soil water content, and soil nitrogen content affected Aβ aggregation inhibitory activity, necessary to suppress Aβ neurotoxicity, in P. frutescens var. crispa extracts. This study provides practical cultivation methods for P. frutescens var. crispa with high Aβ aggregation inhibitory activity for the prevention of AD.

Inhibition of α-Synuclein Accumulation Improves Neuronal Apoptosis and Delayed Postoperative Cognitive Recovery in Aged Mice.

Delayed neurocognitive recovery (dNCR) is a major complication after anesthesia and surgery in older adults. Alpha-synuclein (α-syn; encoded by the gene, SNCA) has recently been shown to play an important role in hippocampus-dependent working memory. Aggregated forms of α-syn are associated with multiple neurotoxic mechanisms, such as mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death. In this study, we found that blocking α-syn improved both mitochondrial function and mitochondria-dependent neuronal apoptosis in a mouse model of dNCR. Various forms of α-syn (including total α-syn, phosphorylated-Ser129-α-syn, and oligomers) were upregulated in hippocampal tissue and extracted mitochondria after surgical challenge. Clenbuterol is a novel transcription modulator of Scna. Clenbuterol significantly attenuated surgery-induced progressive accumulation of various toxic α-syn forms in the hippocampus, as well as mitochondrial damage and memory deficits in aged mice following surgery. We also observed excessive mitochondrial α-syn accumulation and increased mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in vitro using nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells and primary hippocampal neurons exposed to lipopolysaccharide. To further validate the neuroprotective effect of α-syn inhibition, we used a lentiviral Snca-shRNA (Lv-shSnca) to knockdown Snca. Of note, Lv-shSnca transfection significantly inhibited neuronal apoptosis mediated by the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in neurons exposed to lipopolysaccharide. This α-syn inhibition improved the disruption to mitochondrial morphology and function, as well as decreased levels of apoptosis. Our results suggest that targeting pathological α-syn may achieve neuroprotection through regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis and suppression of apoptosis in the aged hippocampus, further strengthening the therapeutic potential of targeting α-syn for dNCR.

Expression of p11 and Heteromeric TASK Channels in Rat Carotid Body Glomus Cells and Nerve Growth Factor-differentiated PC12 Cells.

TWIK-related acid-sensitive K+ (TASK) homomeric channels, TASK1 and TASK3, are present in PC12 cells. The channels do not heteromerize due plausibly to a lack of p11 protein. Single-channel recording reveals that most of the rat carotid body (CB) glomus cells express heteromeric TASK1-TASK3 channels, but the presence of p11 in glomus cells has not yet been verified. TASK1, but not TASK3, binds to p11, which has a retention signal for the endoplasmic reticulum. We hypothesized that p11 could facilitate heteromeric TASK1-TASK3 formation in glomus cells. We investigated this hypothesis in isolated immunocytochemically identified rat CB glomus cells. The findings were that glomus cells expressed p11-like immunoreactive (IR) material, and TASK1- and TASK3-like IR material mainly coincided in the cytoplasm. The proximity ligation assay showed that TASK1 and TASK3 heteromerized. In separate experiments, supporting evidence for the major role of p11 for channel heteromerization was provided in PC12 cells stimulated by nerve growth factor. p11 production took place there via multiple signaling pathways comprising mitogen-activated protein kinase and phospholipase C, and heteromeric TASK1-TASK3 channels were formed. We conclude that p11 is expressed and TASK1 and TASK3 heteromerize in rat CB glomus cells.

A combined microRNA and proteome profiling to investigate the effect of ZnO nanoparticles on neuronal cells

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are one of the most broadly used engineered nanomaterials. The toxicity potential of ZnO NPs has been explored in several studies; however, its neurotoxicity, especially its molecular mechanism, has not been studied in depth. In this study, we have used a cellular model of neuronal differentiation (nerve growth factor differentiated PC12 cells) to compare the effect of ZnO NPs exposure on neuronal (differentiated or mature neurons) and non-neuronal (undifferentiated) cells. Our studies have shown that the noncytotoxic concentration of ZnO NPs causes neurite shortening and degeneration in differentiated PC12 cells. Brain-specific microRNA (miRNA) array and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) are used to carry out profiling of miRNAs and proteins in PC12 cells exposed with ZnO NPs. Exposure of ZnO NPs produced significant deregulation of a higher number of miRNAs (15) and proteins (267) in neuronal cells in comparison to miRNAs (8) and proteins (207) of non-neuronal cells (8). In silico pathway analysis of miRNAs and proteins deregulated in ZnO NPs exposed differentiated PC12 cells have shown pathways leading to neurodegenerative diseases and mitochondrial dysfunctions are primarily targeted pathways. Further, a bioenergetics study carried out using Seahorse XFp metabolic flux analyzer has confirmed the involvement of mitochondrial dysfunctions in ZnO NPs exposed differentiated PC12 cells. In conclusion, differentiated PC12 cells (neuronal) were found more vulnerable than undifferentiated (non-neuronal PC12 cells) toward the exposure of ZnO NPs and deregulation of miRNAs and mitochondrial dysfunctions play a significant role in its toxicity.

Hydrogen Gas Attenuates Hypoxic-Ischemic Brain Injury via Regulation of the MAPK/HO-1/PGC-1a Pathway in Neonatal Rats.

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a leading cause of death in neonates with no effective treatments. Recent advancements in hydrogen (H2) gas offer a promising therapeutic approach for ischemia reperfusion injury; however, the impact of this approach for HIE remains a subject of debate. We assessed the therapeutic effects of H2 gas on HIE and the underlying molecular mechanisms in a rat model of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBI). H2 inhalation significantly attenuated neuronal injury and effectively improved early neurological outcomes in neonatal HIBI rats as well as learning and memory in adults. This protective effect was associated with initiation time and duration of sustained H2 inhalation. Furthermore, H2 inhalation reduced the expression of Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX) and caspase-3 while promoting the expression of Bcl-2, nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). H2 activated extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase and dephosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells. Inhibitors of MAPKs blocked H2-induced HO-1 expression. HO-1 small interfering RNA decreased the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α) and sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and reversed the protectivity of H2 against OGD/R-induced cell death. These findings suggest that H2 augments cellular antioxidant defense capacity through activation of MAPK signaling pathways, leading to HO-1 expression and subsequent upregulation of PGC-1α and SIRT-1 expression. Thus, upregulation protects NGF-differentiated PC12 cells from OGD/R-induced oxidative cytotoxicity. In conclusion, H2 inhalation exerted protective effects on neonatal rats with HIBI. Early initiation and prolonged H2 inhalation had better protective effects on HIBI. These effects of H2 may be related to antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory responses. HO-1 plays an important role in H2-mediated protection through the MAPK/HO-1/PGC-1α pathway. Our results support further assessment of H2 as a potential therapeutic for neurological conditions in which oxidative stress and apoptosis are implicated.

Enzyme-digested Colla Corii Asini (E'jiao) prevents hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death and accelerates amyloid beta clearance in neuronal-like PC12 cells.

As an aging-associated degenerative disease, Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by the deposition of amyloid beta (Aβ), oxidative stress, inflammation, dysfunction and loss of cholinergic neurons. Colla Corii Asini (CCA) is a traditional Chinese medicine which has been used for feebleness-related diseases and anti-aging. CCA might delay aging-induced degenerative changes in neurons. In the present study, we evaluated antioxidant activity, cytoprotective effects, and Aβ removability of enzyme-digested Colla Corii Asini (CCAD). Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) activity assay showed that, as compared to gelatins from the skin of porcine, bovine and cold water fish, CCA exhibited the highest ORAC activity. The ORAC activity of CCA and CCAD was increased gradually by the length of time in storage. Ultrastructure analysis by scanning electron microscopy showed that among CCA manufactured in 2008, 2013, 2017 and gelatin from cold water fish skin, CCA manufactured in 2008 presented the smoothest surface structure. We further tested the protective effects of CCAD (manufactured in 2008) and enzyme-digested gelatin from cold water fish skin (FGD) on hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced cell death in nerve growth factor-differentiated neuronal-like PC12 cells. Presto blue assay showed that both FGD and CCAD at 0.5 mg/mL increased cell viability in H2O2-treated neuronal-like PC12 cells. The protection of CCAD was significantly superior to that of FGD. Acetylcholinesterase (AchE) assay showed that both FGD and CCAD inhibited AchE activity in nerve growth factor-differentiated neuronal-like PC12 cells to 89.1% and 74.5% of that in non-treated cells, respectively. The data suggest that CCAD might be able to increase the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Although CCAD inhibited AchE activity in neuronal-like PC12 cells, CCAD prevented H2O2-induced abnormal deterioration of AchE. ELISA and neprilysin activity assay results indicated that CCAD reduced amyloid beta accumulation and increased neprilysin activity in Aβ1–42-treated neuronal-like PC12 cells, suggesting that CCAD can enhance Aβ clearance. Our results suggest that CCA might be useful for preventing and treating Alzheimer’s disease.

Novel neuroprotective hydroquinones with a vinyl alkyne from the fungus, Pestalotiopsis microspora.

New hydroquinone derivatives bearing a vinyl alkyne, pestalotioquinols A and B, were isolated from a fungal culture broth of Pestalotiopsis microspora. The structures of these novel compounds were determined by interpretation of spectroscopic data (1D/2D NMR, MS, and IR), and the absolute configuration of the stereogenic center of pestalotioquinol A was assigned using the modified Mosher's method. Nerve growth factor-differentiated neuronal PC12 cells were pretreated with pestalotioquinols A and B and removed from the medium, and then treated with a generator of peroxynitrite (ONOO-), a reactive nitrogen species, to induce cell death. The cytotoxicity of the treated cells was assessed by measuring lactate dehydrogenase leakage. As a result, 1-3 μM pretreatment of pestalotioquinols A and B rescued neuronal PC12 cells from peroxynitrite-induced cytotoxicity and the protective activity was sustained after removing each compound from the medium. These results demonstrate that pestalotioquinol derivatives are a new class of hydroquinones possessing a vinyl alkyne and exhibiting relatively high neuroprotective effects.

Pulsed electromagnetic field and relief of hypoxia-induced neuronal cell death: The signaling pathway.

Low-energy low-frequency pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) exert several protective effects, such as the regulation of kinases, transcription factors as well as cell viability in both central and peripheral biological systems. However, it is not clear on which bases they affect neuroprotection and the mechanism responsible is yet unknown. In this study, we have characterized in nerve growth factor-differentiated pheochromocytoma PC12 cells injured with hypoxia: (i) the effects of PEMF exposure on cell vitality; (ii) the protective pathways activated by PEMFs to relief neuronal cell death, including adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase C, protein kinase C epsilon and delta, p38, ERK1/2, JNK1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinases, Akt and caspase-3; (iii) the regulation by PEMFs of prosurvival heat-shock proteins of 70 (HSP70), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and Bcl-2 family proteins. The results obtained in this study show a protective effect of PEMFs that are able to reduce neuronal cell death induced by hypoxia by modulating p38, HSP70, CREB, BDNF, and Bcl-2 family proteins. Specifically, we found a rapid activation (30 min) of p38 kinase cascade, which in turns enrolles HSP70 survival chaperone molecule, resulting in a significant CREB phosphorylation increase (24 hr). In this cascade, later (48 hr), BDNF and the antiapoptotic pathway regulated by the Bcl-2 family of proteins are recruited by PEMFs to enhance neuronal survival. This study paves the way to elucidate the mechanisms triggered by PEMFs to act as a new neuroprotective approach to treat cerebral ischemia by reducing neuronal cell death.

Neuroprotective Effects of Bioactive Compounds and MAPK Pathway Modulation in "Ischemia"-Stressed PC12 Pheochromocytoma Cells.

This review surveys the efforts taken to investigate in vitro neuroprotective features of synthetic compounds and cell-released growth factors on PC12 clonal cell line temporarily deprived of oxygen and glucose followed by reoxygenation (OGD/R). These cells have been used previously to mimic some of the properties of in vivo brain ischemia-reperfusion-injury (IRI) and have been instrumental in identifying common mechanisms such as calcium overload, redox potential, lipid peroxidation and MAPKs modulation. In addition, they were useful for establishing the role of certain membrane penetrable cocktails of antioxidants as well as potential growth factors which may act in neuroprotection. Pharmacological mechanisms of neuroprotection addressing modulation of the MAPK cascade and increased redox potential by natural products, drugs and growth factors secreted by stem cells, in either undifferentiated or nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells exposed to ischemic conditions are discussed for future prospects in neuroprotection studies.

TENS-like Stimulation Downregulates Inflammatory Cytokines in a PC-12 Cell Line

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)–like stimulation on the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and IL-6 in PC-12 cells, which are commonly used as neuronal cell models. MethodsNerve growth factor–differentiated PC-12 cells were exposed to electrical stimulation for 15 minutes at 1 mA, 200 μs, and 100 Hz. Cell lysate from stimulated and control cells was assayed for TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. In 6 trials, cells were preincubated with the L-type ion channel blocker nicardipine. Cultured cells were also incubated with Alexa Fluor 488 and visualized by fluorescence microscopy to determine the nuclear vs cytoplasmic distribution of the p65 sub-unit of NF-κB ResultsCompared with control (unstimulated) cells, the stimulated cells had a downregulation of the assayed cytokines. However, preincubation with the L-type ion channel blocker nicardipine blocked this effect of stimulation. Additionally, it was noted that TENS-like stimulation promoted a relative sequestration of the p65 subunit of NF-κB in the cytoplasm vs the nucleus. ConclusionsIt appears that in this cell line and with these stimulation parameters, TENS-like stimulation attenuated the expression of the assayed proinflammatory cytokines, in part by promoting the relative sequestration of the p65 subunit of NF-κB in the cytoplasm, and that voltage-dependent calcium channels have a role in the cascade of events initiated by the TENS-like stimulation.

Susceptibility of naïve and differentiated PC12 cells to Japanese encephalitis virus infection.

Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne disease caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection. Although JEV infects and replicates in cells with multiple tissue origins, neurons are the preferential cells for JEV infection. Currently, the identities of JEV cell tropism are largely unclear. To gain better insight into the underlying identities of JEV cell tropism, this study was designed to compare the JEV cell tropism with naïve or differentiated PC12 cells. Through nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells, we discovered that JEV efficiently replicated in differentiated PC12 cells rather than naïve cells. Mechanistic studies revealed that viral adsorption/attachment seemed not to be a crucial factor. Supporting data showed that antagonizing postreceptor intracellular signaling of interferons, along with the activation of suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS3) expression and protein tyrosine phosphatase activity, were apparent in differentiated PC12 cells after JEV infection. Independent of differentiating inducing agents, the upregulation of SOCS3 expression and protein tyrosine phosphatase activity, as well as preferential JEV tropism, were common in JEV-infected differentiated PC12 cells. Using cultured primary neurons, JEV efficiently replicated in embryonic neurons rather than adult neurons, and the preference was accompanied by higher SOCS3 expression and protein tyrosine phosphatase activity. Given that both SOCS3 and protein tyrosine phosphatases have been implicated in the process of neuronal differentiation, JEV infection seems to not only create an antagonizing strategy to escape host's interferon antiviral response but also takes advantage of cellular machinery to favor its replication. Taken together, current findings imply that dynamic changes within cellular regulators of antiviral machinery could be accompanied by events of neuronal differentiation, thus concurrently playing roles in the control of JEV cell tropism and replication. © 2017 IUBMB Life, 69(2):79-87, 2017.

Effects of Low Amyloid-β (Aβ) Concentration on Aβ1-42 Oligomers Binding and GluN2B Membrane Expression.

Numerous studies have shown that amyloid-β (Aβ) modulate intracellular metabolic cascades and an intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and a cell surface NMDA receptor expression alteration in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However most of these findings have been obtained by using non-physiological Aβ concentrations. The present study deals with the effect of low Aβ concentrations on cellular homeostasis. We used nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells and murine cortical neurons sequentially treated with low chronic monomeric or small oligomeric Aβ concentrations and high acute oligomeric Aβ concentrations to bring out a priming effect of chronic treatment on subsequently high Aβ concentrations-elicited cellular response. Both cell types indeed displayed an enhanced capacity to bind oligomeric Aβ after monomeric or small oligomeric Aβ application. Furthermore, the results show that monomeric Aβ1–42 application to the cells induces an increase of the Ca2+-response and of the membrane expression of the extrasynaptic subunit of the NMDA receptor GluN2B in PC12 cells, while the opposite effects were observed in cultured neurons. This suggests a sequential interaction of Aβ with the cellular plasma membrane involving monomers or small Aβ oligomers which would facilitate the binding of the deleterious high molecular Aβ oligomers. This mechanism would explain the slow progression of AD in the human nervous system and the deep gradient of neuronal death observed around the amyloid plaques in the nervous tissue.

EF-hand domains are involved in the differential cellular distribution of dystrophin Dp40

Dp40 is the shortest DMD gene product that has been reported to date. It is encoded by exons 63–70, a region required for a β-dystroglycan interaction. Its expression has been identified in rat, mouse, and human; however, its function remains unknown. To explore the expression of Dp40 transcript and subcellular localization of epitope-tagged Dp40 proteins, RT-PCR and immunofluorescence assays were performed in PC12 cells. The expression of Dp40 mRNA was found in undifferentiated and nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells. According to immunofluorescence analyses, the recombinant protein Dp40 was mainly localized in the cell periphery/cytoplasm of undifferentiated and differentiated PC12 cells, a small amount of this protein is localized to the nucleus of differentiated cells. With the aim to identify the amino acids involved in the nuclear localization of Dp40, an in silico analysis was performed and it predicted that prolines 93 and 170, located within EF1 and EF2-hand domains, are involved in the nuclear localization of this protein. This prediction was confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis, the Dp40-L93P mutant was localized to the nucleus and cell periphery, while Dp40-L170P and Dp40-L93/170P showed mainly a nuclear localization. Dp40 co-localizes with β-dystroglycan and the co-localization score was statistically reduced in Dp40-L93P, Dp40-L170P and Dp40-L93/170P mutants.

Enhanced expression of matrix metalloproteinase-12 contributes to Npc1 deficiency-induced axonal degeneration

Niemann–Pick type C (NPC) disease is a genetic disorder associated with intracellular cholesterol accumulation in the brain and other organs, and neurodegeneration is generally believed to be the fatal cause of the disease. In view of the emerging role of matrix metalloproteinase-12 (MMP-12) in neuronal injury, we investigated its expression and potential roles in axonal degeneration in Npc1−/− mouse brain. Microarray and quantitative real-time reversed transcription PCR analysis indicated a marked increase in MMP-12 mRNA levels in cerebellum of 3week-old Npc1−/− mice, as compared to wild-type littermates. Western blots showed that the ratio of mature MMP-12 over pro-MMP-12 was significantly increased in cerebellum of Npc1−/−, as compared to wild-type mice. Immunohistochemical studies confirmed that MMP-12 expression was increased, especially in the cell bodies of Purkinje neurons in Npc1−/− mice. Neuritic growth was significantly reduced by Npc1 siRNA knockdown in nerve growth factor-differentiated PC-12 cells, and this effect was completely reversed by treatment with an MMP-12 specific inhibitor. Furthermore, in vivo experiments showed that chronic treatment with the MMP-12 inhibitor ameliorated Npc1 deficiency-induced axonal pathology in the striatum. Our results indicate that abnormal neuronal expression of MMP-12 may contribute to axonal degeneration in NPC disease, thus providing a potential novel target for treatment.

Influence of spice and grape pomace extracts on migraine‐related indicators in vitro

Calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) is well‐recognized as a pivotal contributor to the inflammatory process in migraine. Limited evidence suggests that diet may impact circulating levels of CGRP. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of ginger, turmeric and grape pomace extracts on two cellular models of migraine: CGRP secretion from neuroendocrine CA77 cells, and calcium uptake by nerve growth factor‐differentiated PC12 cells.Dried, ground samples were passed through a 40‐mesh sieve prior to extraction in solvents chosen for their efficiency: grape pomace (50% acetone), ginger root (methanol), and turmeric (acetone). Treatment doses, in 0.1% DMSO vehicle solvent, were based on cell viability results via methylene blue cytoxicity assay. CA77 cells were incubated with treatment for 1 h, then ELISA was used to quantify CGRP. Calcium influx was measured in PC12 cells via the GCaMP5 genetically encoded fluorescent calcium indicator, after 10 min pre‐treatment with extracts, upon stimulation with 50 mM KCl.Results showed a statistically significant decrease in CGRP secretion following treatment with high doses of ginger (0.2 mg ginger equivalent/mL) and grape pomace (1.0 mg pomace equivalent/mL) extracts. Relative to vehicle control, CGRP secretion was decreased by 22% and 87%, respectively. A non‐statistical trend of lower calcium influx was observed in PC12 cells treated with ginger extracts. Solubility of turmeric extracts may have precluded detection of an effect. These results suggest that grape pomace and ginger extracts may have anti‐inflammatory propensity in migraine, which future studies may elucidate.

Epidermal fatty acid-binding protein protects nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells from lipotoxic injury.

Epidermal fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP/FABP5/DA11) binds and transport long-chain fatty acids in the cytoplasm and may play a protecting role during neuronal injury. We examined whether E-FABP protects nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells (NGFDPC12 cells) from lipotoxic injury observed after palmitic acid (C16:0; PAM) overload. NGFDPC12 cells cultures treated with PAM/bovine serum albumin at 0.3 mM/0.15 mM show PAM-induced lipotoxicity (PAM-LTx) and apoptosis. The apoptosis was preceded by a cellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and higher levels of E-FABP. Antioxidants MCI-186 and N-acetyl cysteine prevented E-FABP's induction in expression by PAM-LTx, while tert-butyl hydroperoxide increased ROS and E-FABP expression. Non-metabolized methyl ester of PAM, methyl palmitic acid (mPAM), failed to increase cellular ROS, E-FABP gene expression, or trigger apoptosis. Treatment of NGFDPC12 cultures with siE-FABP showed reduced E-FABP levels correlating with higher accumulation of ROS and cell death after exposure to PAM. In contrast, increasing E-FABP cellular levels by pre-loading the cells with recombinant E-FABP diminished the PAM-induced ROS and cell death. Finally, agonists for PPARβ (GW0742) or PPARγ (GW1929) increased E-FABP expression and enhanced the resistance of NGFDPC12 cells to PAM-LTx. We conclude that E-FABP protects NGFDPC12 cells from lipotoxic injury through mechanisms that involve reduction of ROS.Epidermal fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP) may protect nerve cells from the damaging exposure to high levels of free fatty acids (FA). We show that E-FABP can neutralize the effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the high levels of FA in the cell and protect PC12 cells from lipotoxic injuries common in Type 2 diabetes neuropathy. Potentially, E-FABP gene up-regulation may be mediated through the NFkB pathway and future studies are needed to further evaluate this proposition.

S-Methyl cysteine enhanced survival of nerve growth factor differentiated PC12 cells under hypoxic conditions

A nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cell line was used to investigate the protective effects of s-methyl cysteine (SMC) at 1, 2, 4, and 8 μM under oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) conditions. OGD decreased the cell viability. However, SMC pre-treatments at 2, 4 and 8 μM improved the cell viability, decreased cleaved caspase-3 and Bax expression, and reserved Bcl-2 expression. Furthermore, SMC maintained the mitochondrial membrane potential, lowered the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and DNA fragmentation, and decreased the activity and expression of caspase-3 and caspase-8. OGD increased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and 3-nitrotyrosine production, decreased glutathione peroxide (GPX) and glutathione reductase (GR) activities and the expression, enhanced nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity and inducible NOS (iNOS) expression. SMC pre-treatments at 2, 4 and 8 μM lowered the ROS and 3-nitrotyrosine formation, maintained GPX and GR activities and expression, and decreased NOS activity and iNOS expression. OGD up-regulated hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, nuclear transcription factor kappa (NF-κ) B p50, NF-κB p65 and p-p38 expression. SMC pre-treatments at 1-8 μM lowered HIF-1α expression and decreased p38 phosphorylation. SMC at 2, 4 and 8 μM suppressed the protein expression of NF-κB p50 and NF-κB p65. When YC-1 (HIF-1α inhibitor), pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (NF-κB inhibitor) or SB203580 (p38MAPK inhibitor) were used to block the activation of HIF-1α, NF-κB and p38, SMC pre-treatments did not affect the protein expression of HIF-1α, NF-κB and p-p38. These results indicated that SMC was a potent neuro-protective agent.

Ezogabine: Development and Role in the Management of Epileptic Seizures

Epilepsy which is a diverse set of complex neurological disorders comprised of seizures affecting more than 50 million people worldwide among which 90 % are from developing countries. The aim of current antiepileptic therapy is to control the seizures with minimal side effects and improve the patients' quality of life. Near by about 20 medications are approved by Food and Drug Administration among which only five to six are widely used for the treatment of epileptic seizures. Ezogabine (D-23129) is a recently approved antiepileptic drug approved by USFDA for adjunctive therapy of partial onset seizures. It was developed by Valeant Pharmaceuticals and Glaxosmithkline in 2011 for the management of partial onset seizures. The drug has shown unique mechanism of action among other antiepileptic drugs by facilitating potassium channel current in nerve growth factor differentiated PC12 cells. It also promotes membrane repolarisation and thus opposes rapid repetitive discharges. The drug is quickly absorbed and reaches maximum plasma concentration between 0.5 hour and 2 hours after a single oral dose also showing a moderately high bioavailability, volume of distribution and a terminal half life of 8 to 11 hours. It is metabolized via glucuronidation and acetylation. The various adverse effects found with the drug were related to central nervous system and appeared to be dose related like drowsiness, dizziness, vertigo and confusion etc. All these parameters make it superior from other available drugs for the management of epileptic seizures. The present review describes the development; medicinal chemistry; mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of Ezogabine. Further the review put forwards the indispensible role of this drug for antiepileptic treatment.