Organized Crime Groups Research Articles

New Wave Cyber Attacks

There is increasing enthusiasm for, and recognition of, the benefits that artificial intelligence (AI) can provide to society. The emphasis has been on the positive, but AI and deep learning can be used for negative purposes. Modular Neural Networks (MNN) are capable of independent learning and have been targeted at evolutionary, complex financial systems. If the goal of an MNN were to be defined as system penetration, there is no reason why an algorithm could not run in the background. There are a resource requirements, but organised crime groups, technology companies, nation states and individuals with a curious bent are all capable of such. Ordered society and security requires a degree of certainty that systems on which society depends will remain recognisable, dependable and resilient. Under current conditions, security is difficult enough. It is suggested that limitations may be required before release of certain AI systems, in the knowledge of their potential for detriment to society. An AI system capable of independent learning, permits undefined emergent behaviours. That the results of any emergent properties may be benign or malign is irrelevant. Scientific history is littered with developments whose uses were redirected away from the benign.Such concern could be interpreted as fear of the unknown, standing in the way of technological advances. Unless society wishes to become machine-driven, the power and control of systems should be defined and limited by society, not accidently sprung on humanity or based on a ruthless logic that may drive a system to an unacceptable conclusion. Currently there are sophisticated botnet forming methods ensuring botnet persistence. If combined with the concepts of AI, there is a possibility that botnets could exist in perpetuity, with no one able to predict emergence, and no time limits on evolution. Whither cyber defence in the face of the unstoppable, increasingly intelligent, goal directed systems?

Organized crime groups: A systematic review of individual-level risk factors related to recruitment.

Studies from multiple contexts conceptualize organized crime as comprising different types of criminal organizations and activities. Notwithstanding growing scientific interest and increasing number of policies aiming at preventing and punishing organized crime, little is known about the specific processes that lead to recruitment into organized crime. This systematic review aimed at (1) summarizing the empirical evidence from quantitative, mixed methods, and qualitative studies on the individual-level risk factors associated with the recruitment into organized crime, (2) assessing the relative strength of the risk factors from quantitative studies across different factor categories and subcategories and types of organized crime. We searched published and unpublished literature across 12 databases with no constraints as to date or geographic scope. The last search was conducted between September and October 2019. Eligible studies had to be written in English, Spanish, Italian, French, and German. Studies were eligible for the review if they: Reported on organized criminal groups as defined in this review.Investigated recruitment into organized crime as one of its main objectives.Provided quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods empirical analyses.Discussed sufficiently well-defined factors leading to recruitment into organized crime.Addressed factors at individual level.For quantitative or mixed-method studies, the study design allowed to capture variability between organized crime members and non-members. From 51,564 initial records, 86 documents were retained. Reference searches and experts' contributions added 116 additional documents, totaling 202 studies submitted to full-text screening. Fifty-two quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods studies met all eligibility criteria. We conducted a risk-of-bias assessment of the quantitative studies while we assessed the quality of mixed methods and qualitative studies through a 5-item checklist adapted from the CASP Qualitative Checklist. We did not exclude studies due to quality issues. Nineteen quantitative studies allowed the extraction of 346 effect sizes, classified into predictors and correlates. The data synthesis relied on multiple random effects meta-analyses with inverse variance weighting. The findings from mixed methods and qualitative studied were used to inform, contextualize, and expand the analysis of quantitative studies. The amount and the quality of available evidence were weak, and most studies had a high risk-of-bias. Most independent measures were correlates, with possible issues in establishing a causal relation with organized crime membership. We classified the results into categories and subcategories. Despite the small number of predictors, we found relatively strong evidence that being male, prior criminal activity, and prior violence are associated with higher odds of future organized crime recruitment. There was weak evidence, although supported by qualitative studies, prior narrative reviews, and findings from correlates, that prior sanctions, social relations with organized crime involved subjects, and a troubled family environment are associated with greater odds of recruitment. The available evidence is generally weak, and the main limitations were the number of predictors, the number of studies within each factor category, and the heterogeneity in the definition of organized crime group. The findings identify few risk factors that may be subject to possible preventive interventions.

Walls of silence and organized crime: a theoretical and empirical exploration into the shielding of criminal activities from authorities

In this article, we aim to further our understanding of the social embeddedness of organized crime by exploring the (possible) ways the social environment adds to the shielding of organized crime or criminal activities by organized crime groups. We argue that the metaphor of ‘walls of silence’ provides a fruitful way to examine the shielding of organized crime. Based on a theoretical and empirical exploration of 30 cases from the fifth data sweep of Dutch Organized Crime Monitor, we illustrate how organized crime offenders in the Netherlands depend on the silence and secrecy of co-offenders, victims, bystanders, and others who are aware of their (criminal) activities. Furthermore, we present a framework of the shielding of organized crime activities to provide insight into how offenders not only make use of the social environment to shield their activities, but also how the social environment can (purposely) act as walls of silence and secrecy.

The determinants of group membership in organized crime in the UK: A network study

ABSTRACT In this paper, we explore the determinants of co-membership in organised crime groups in a British police force. We find that co-membership of OCGs is higher among individuals who share the same ethnicity and nationality; who have committed acts of violence; and who perpetrate the vast majority of their crimes in the same area. We also find a homophily tendency in relation to age and gender, and that task specialisation within groups is driven by the type of activity. We interpret some results as conforming to the argument that recruitment from a small area and similar ethnic/national background increases cooperation and reduces the likelihood of opportunistic behaviour in a context of rather effective policing. Our findings do not conform to the suggestive image of OC members as ‘urban marauders’ and OCGs as large and powerful multinationals. OCGs tend to be small, localised and formed by people with the same background.

La jaula de oro: The Border Crossing Journey as Dream and Reality

Diego Quemada-Díez's La jaula de oro (2013) follows undocumented young migrants on their way from their native Guatemala through Mexico with the intention to cross into the United States. The picture belongs to a large corpus of border-crossing films which explore reasons and desires that make people risk their lives for a place that they know only from hearsay. This article undertakes an intersectional analysis of La jaula de oro, while probing its connection to Latin American socio-critical film and the road movie genre. Images that document complex social and historical realities and which determine power relations along the axis of age, gender and race, are juxtaposed by a visual terminology that has utopian quality. Picturing conditions and limitations of female and Indigenous protagonists who are subject to repression from within the migration group, border authorities, and organized crime groups, La jaula de oro presents the border crossing journey to be lined with danger and violence where the wide horizon keeps holding the promise of a dignified life.

Life after Emotet – the lessons learned

Nearly a year since the Emotet botnet was disabled, the malware resurfaced again in late 2021. It’s a familiar cycle for organised crime groups (OCGs) to have high-profile campaigns, before lying low for an extended period of time. Meanwhile, the methods they popularise are routinely applied at scale by other operators. It’s vital that security teams understand this cycle and learn from the example of Emotet. This includes the methods used by the group, as well as its origins, evolution, demise and reappearance between 2014 and 2021.

Bending the Rules to Break the System: The Future of Interpol at a Crossroads

The scale and scope of the transnational serious and organized crime threat are growing at a concerning rate. These increasingly resilient and entrepreneurial organized crime groups directly threaten human security and the rule of law. In this strategic context, international law enforcement cooperation is more important than ever. The International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), the preeminent multilateral cooperation mechanism in the rules-based order, is essential to the global response to this organized crime threat. Unfortunately, autocratic states increasingly seek to interact with international institutions in a manner that violates such institutions' rules and norms, as well as those of the broader global rules-based order. Because of its institutional vulnerabilities, Interpol also faces this threat. This paper explores, using case studies, how autocratic states like Turkey, Russia, and China continue to manipulate Interpol's systems to achieve outcomes that these mechanisms were not meant to achieve. Moreover, these same states are undermining the rules-based order. The paper argues that much will need to be done to future-proof Interpol and assure its continued relevance and strategic success. At the heart of this work is a requirement to dramatically increase Interpol's transparency while protecting operational security and privacy. This paper illustrates that a lack of transparency and accountability represents a distinct vulnerability. Exploiting this vulnerability is not simply about the organization and its functions but the broader functionality of multilateralism and the rules-based order. Reforming institutions like Interpol to create transparency and accountability is thus an essential step in preserving the rules-based order that generations have worked so hard to create and that benefits many.

Farmability and pharmability: Transforming the drug market to a health-and human rights-centred approach from self-cultivation to safe supply of controlled substances

Background The supply chains addressing the global demand for major recreational drugs are hardly addressed due to international contracts, particularly the UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Currently applied regulatory changes have several disadvantages ranging from political tensions to the neglect of ecological aspects. The aim of this study is to show some implications associated with a transformation of the recreational drug market that is focused on self-supply of different categories of drugs. The concepts of "farmability", the feasibility to cultivate relevant plants and fungi, and "pharmability", the feasibility to refine materials to drugs by chemical synthesis, purification etc., are addressed. Methods 68 drug experts were invited to fill out an online survey on the feasibility of self-supply of different categories of drugs. The online survey was a five-point Likert scale and had seven questions. Results 26 experts (38.2%) responded to the online questionnaire. Cannabinoids were considered easy to cultivate/manufacture, depressants and psychedelics were ranked with moderate difficulty, opioids and stimulants were regarded as difficult to cultivate/manufacture, and empathogens/entactogens and dissociatives were ranked very difficult. The study found that some controlled substances, in particular cannabis, could be decriminalised without the need for a commercial market. However, some drug categories, such as dissociatives and empathogens/entactogens, would require the establishment of professional manufacturers. Psychedelics and depressants are ranked in between. Conclusion Different drugs are associated with different cultivation and/or manufacturing steps with contrasting difficulty levels. Those differences are likely to shape use prevalence to more accessible and safer drug markets which also decrease the involvement of organised crime groups. Hence, when decriminalising the possession of drugs for personal use, it is therefore recommended to allow also for personal cultivation or cultivation within social clubs. This is particularly relevant for drugs with moderate to high farmability but also if pharmability is sufficiently high.

The phenomenon of human organ trafficking in light of the United Nations sustainable development agenda with special emphasis on cultural offences in Republic of Kosovo

The article concerns the issues related to the illegal trade in human tools in the light of the theoretical structure of sustainable development created by the United Nations (UN). The text consists of several parts. The work aims to show the following research areas: – axiological and legal assumptions of sustainable development in the context of a triple win: social, economic and environmental, – the criminological profile and picture of organized crime in the Republic of Kosovo – trafficking in human organs in the territory of the Republic of Kosovo, – information on traditional customary law (Kanun) in Albanian culture – analysis of the phenomenon of harvesting human organs in Kosovo. The last part of the article presents the economic, social and criminological problems of Kosovo in the context of the Sustainable Development Agenda.The analysis contained in the text proves that the youngest European country (2008) struggles with many problems of a legal, economic and social nature. These problems are not only a consequence of the recent post-Slavic armed conflicts but also result from the specific Albanian legal culture (Kanun rules), which still affects the functioning of this society (especially in the provinces). Therefore, these customs still determine the level of crime in this country, both common and related to the activities of organized crime groups (with particular emphasis on trafficking in human organs). Therefore, it is recommended to successively implement the legal solutions contained in the Agenda for Sustainable Development, to stabilize not only this country but the entire region.

Оперативно-разыскное противодействие преступности: еще одна концепция или терминологические особенности

The article discusses a number of terms used to denote the activities of the state to combat crime. It is indicated that at present the term counteraction has begun to be widely used in legislation, which requires clarification of this concept. Arguments are given about the relevance of the term “counteraction”, its meaning and relationship with other terms, primarily with the concepts of “fighting crime” and “crime control”. The meanings of the words “counteraction”, “struggle” are considered, it is concluded that it would not be correct to identify the counteraction of crime with its prevention, exactly as with preventive activity.
 Analyzing the concept of crime control, the author states that it is being put forward in the form of a new strategy in the ORD, although its development is not very intensive today. It is concluded that measures to counter crime, such as the detection and disclosure of crimes, should also be supplemented by a system of preventive measures, such as influencing organized criminal groups and communities in order to separate them, undermining the economic foundations of organized crime, depriving the organizers of organized crime groups and OPS of authority, etc.

Drug crime transformation under the effect of online platforms

Many types of drug crimes are already known, but it is common to offender groups to implement them in an organised, coordinated, multi-level framework. Affected by online platforms, drug crimes are undergoing a transformation that presents new challenges for the authorities. Criminal groups also like to (re)take the opportunities offered by the Internet. Platforms that connect to the Dark Web, the Dark Internet (secret network form), have become increasingly popular over the past few years, thanks to the fact that there are also services available which are not available by traditional browsers. Coordinated cooperation between several countries, over several years, is needed to ensure successful detection in cyberspace. This is illustrated by a current EUROPOL report, published on 12 January 2021, which shows that a successful liquidation has occurred in the case of DarkMarket, one of the largest illegal marketplaces, requiring the cooperation of several European Union Member States and several non-European Union countries. In the face of the coronavirus epidemic, organised crime groups are still trying to remain active and resilient, which is not a challenge in the online space at this time, although drug delivery models needed to be changed, but they are trying to maintain the constant cycle of the market through their hiding methods. In my study, I am also looking for answers how the detection and recovery of criminal property is carried out at national and international level, in cases where drug crime takes place in the online space. What is the path of illegally acquired criminal property, how can financial profiling be carried out in these cases? In case of drug offences, we are talking about a special asset recovery where is no victim demanded, because there are very few known victims existing. With my study, I intend to capture the current topicality of drug crime, by detecting methods of committing crimes in the online space, internationally and domestically, and by exploring the current processes of asset discovery and recovery. In this way, I wish to provide results that can be used by the profession.

Illegal wildlife trade and other organised crime: A scoping review.

The global illegal wildlife trade has been anecdotally linked to other serious crimes, such as fraud, corruption, and money laundering, as well as the cross-border trafficking of drugs, arms, counterfeit goods, and persons. As research on this topic is scarce and sporadic, we conducted a scoping literature review to gather information across multiple disciplines and evidence types on crime convergences in the illegal wildlife trade. We reviewed 150 papers published between 2000 and 2020. We found that the illegal trade in many of the most frequently trafficked species have reportedly converged with numerous other serious and organised crimes, most commonly drug trafficking. Convergences can occur in a variety of ways, although the diversification of organised crime groups, parallel trafficking of contraband, and use of enabling crimes (such as corruption and violence) were the most frequently described. Possible explanations for our results and future research directions are discussed.

Organized crime and state capture in the Western Balkans

The main objective of the article is to show that the temporary symbiosis between centres of political power and organized crime leads to the development of permanent, corrupt and opaque networks. Focusing on the countries of the Western Balkans, the author points to the reasons for the development of organized crime in the region and then to the conditions created in the post-conflict period that resulted in the failure of effective attempts to stop organized crime and the corruption that facilitates it in the these countries. The article also points out that the creation of symbiotic relationships between political elites and organized crime groups leads to a ‘state capture.’ The unresolved problems of corruption and organized crime, in turn, have a direct impact on these countries’ EU-integration processes.

Abitare informale e regolazione violenta. Disagio abitativo e reti criminali ai margini della Capitale

Informal housing includes the range of practices associated with producing or occupying residential spaces which falls beyond formal systems of urban planning. In this field it is complicated recognize what is legal or illegal and informal self-building and social innovation coexist with urban crime. On the one hand, informal housing is an opportunity for counter-movements against marketisation of the housing sector (squatting, self-construction, grassroots neighbourhood organisations). On the other hand, in the informal housing we can find urban crime, including organised crime groups, which control over the territory, occupy public housing, and manage public housing building. Massive urban security policies tackled informal space through segregation, surveillance, and punitive initiatives. Here the accusation of “mafia” has intensity the criminalisation of urban poverty, and the complexity of socio-spatial inequality is confused under the penal repression. The essay tries to deepen this ambivalence by looking at the outskirts of Rome and, in particular, at the relationship between informal housing in neighbourhoods with public housing complexes, with a high concentration of socio-economic disadvantage and high criminal density.

Exploring infiltration behaviour by organised crime groups

PurposeThis paper aims to provide a holistic view of infiltration behaviour by organised crime groups (OCGs), with a specific focus on the methods used to access the legal market, including factors that drive an organised crime group to pursue infiltration. The act of infiltration is examined as a business decision; therefore, factors such as the surrounding community, the availability of criminal opportunities and broader implications, are considered.Design/methodology/approachInitially, the concept of an organised crime group is explored by, where possible, identifying trends in behaviour and structure. The act of infiltration is dissected, including the infiltration behaviour of OCGs and their related decision-making processes.FindingsInfiltration actions are complex; therefore, any countervailing combatting and preventative actions will need to follow suit. OCGs pursue infiltration only when deemed feasible and to their benefit in furthering their illicit actions. Criminal opportunities are pursued across the entire economic sector. When these groups participate in a legal market, their criminality infects the healthy market and leaves it ill and contagious to the rest of the licit economy.Originality/valueInfiltration is organic, as it indicates growth or adjustment to changing market conditions. Criminal opportunities are widespread, and their creation is often unintentional–the legal economy casts a shadow. Combatting organised crime, entrenched in the lawful community, requires that the focus should be on the susceptibility of potential infiltration targets through the possible infiltration methods. Furthermore, a broader perspective is needed when considering the underlying motivation for infiltration–it may not only be to generate profit.

Organized crime a major crisis in India and its impact on the internal security of India

The Linkage between organized crime groups and terrorist groups have strengthen criminal activities like drug trafficking, smuggling of gold, arms and commodities, kidnapping, extortion, human trafficking, fake currency. Organized crime has become a global challenges it has an effect on all the countries involved in this business of supply and demand. Indian terrorist groups has the support of external forces especially who provide them fund in return of drug trafficking, the north –east states and Kashmir this is very common, in fact north east has a parallel government. There are many gangs who conduct this business and Mumbai is the main target being the financial capital and has the biggest port in India, most of the smuggling business is carried out through sea and many terrorist in the past have entered India through sea routes as it is difficult to identify and fake identity card is not recognised. The Indian government has no agencies so strong to tackle this issue only, lack of coordination, resources and manpower, with lack of trained staffs at the police station has made the groups more strong to conduct these activities. Clashes of opinion between the central and the state government to tackle organize crime, increase the time period to come to a single decision. However, we need to strengthen our system and come up with new laws and acts to tackle this menace.

Persistent illiberalism: Democracy, authoritarianism, and politics in Veracruz

AbstractThis article aims to explain why, despite the democratic legal and institutional changes that have occurred in the political system in Veracruz over the last 30 years that now point to a competitive local electoral system, illiberal structures, and practices persist, through the continuity of a form of subnational authoritarianism. Examples of this system are the political controls exercised by regional caciques and union corporativism; the reproduction of clientelistic practices; the persistent problem of the low state institutional capacities; the lack of an effective division of powers; and—more recently—the empowerment of various organized crime groups. The justice system is broken by design. Political parties lack institutionality, credible leadership, and political programs. The public space is fragile and highly fragmented. Civil society is weak and very concentrated in the capital city at the federal level. Inequality and poverty are so widespread that working classes, peasants, indigenous peoples, and urban dwellers have no capacity to organize in an autonomous manner. This situation explains the persistence of illiberal structures and practices in the process of transition to and consolidation of democracy. Veracruz is an extreme example of all these processes.

Organized Crime, Captured Politicians, and the Allocation of Public Resources

Abstract What is the impact of collusion between members of criminal organizations and politicians on local public finances, in contexts in which organized crime is well-rooted? This article addresses this question by focusing on local governments of Southern Italy, over the period 1998–2016. In order to capture the presence of organized crime, we exploit the enforcement of a national law allowing the dissolution of a municipal government upon evidence of collusion between elected officials and the mafia. We measure the consequences of this infiltration of mafia groups within local governments by using data on local public finances at the municipality level. Difference-in-differences estimates reveal that captured municipalities commit on average more resources for investments in construction and waste management and are less effective in collecting taxes for waste and garbage. This indicates that organized crime groups exploit the collusion with local politicians in order to distort the allocation of public resources toward key sectors of strategic interest for the criminal business (JEL K42, H72, D72).

Yasadışı Uyuşturucu Ticareti İle Terör Arasındaki İrtibat: Sınıraşan Hibrit Tehdit Örneği Olarak PKK

All terrorist groups need finance to operate. It is a means for certain groups to accomplish their objectives; for others, it is the aims itself per se. Terrorist groups are therefore involved in different levels of organized crime. One of them is illicit drug trafficking, which has a nexus with organized crime and terrorist groups. This study aims to demonstrate a better understanding of the Kurdistan Workers' Party's (PKK) evolution into an organized criminal organization and its funding sources. From this point of view, the PKK is classified as a narco-terrorist organization with strong financial motives in this paper. As it will be analyzed on paper, its financial motivations frequently have weighed in the same level as its political motivation. It began to act as a hybrid organization through transnational offences, and it has steadily strengthened its criminal capabilities. Its members retain their deceptive political rhetoric to perform their illegal operations more easily. The organization can also be defined as a hybrid transnational organized crime group by UN standards, given the severity of its crimes and its criminal network spanning the Middle East, Turkey, and Europe.

Macabre ceremonies: How Los Zetas produces extreme violence to promote organizational cohesion

Why do some organized crime groups (OCGs) carry out face-to-face killings where perpetrators debase their victims and defile their bodies? Leading criminologists contend that OCGs carry out extreme killings deliberately to attain specific performance objectives. Conversely, psycho-sociological scholars argue that extreme killings only occur in situations that affect perpetrators’ reasoning and emotions. In their view, these situations are largely beyond OCGs’ control. I argue that analyzing extreme killings as organizational rituals can contribute to reconciling these seemingly conflicting views. More specifically, I contend that the OCG known as Los Zetas ritualizes executions to generate the conditions that make extreme violence possible. Through ritualization, Los Zetas influences executioners’ perceptions of extreme behavior from something abhorrent into something valued, desirable, and enjoyable. Once the conditions conducive to extreme violence emerge, Los Zetas exploits it to attain utilitarian objectives.