Group Level Of Analysis Research Articles

A case series study of compassion-focused therapy for distressing experiences in psychosis.

Compassion-focused therapy (CFT) is an evolution-informed biopsychosocial approach that seeks to cultivate attachment and care motivational systems and their psychophysiological regulators. These can counteract some of the harmful effects of social threat, inferiority, shame, self-criticism and depression, which are common in people with psychosis and undermine their well-being, social trust and ability to feel safe. This study aimed to test the acceptability of a novel manualized individual CFT intervention for psychosis (CFTp). A non-concurrent, multiple-baseline, case series design, with three phases: baseline, intervention and follow-up. The 26-session CFTp intervention was provided for a sample of eight people with distressing psychotic experiences and a psychosis-related diagnosis. The study aimed to assess acceptability of CFTp and to test clinically reliable improvements while receiving the intervention, compared to a baseline period. Seven of eight participants completed the therapy, and clinically reliable improvements were found at both the single-case and group level of analysis. At the single-case level, over half the participants showed improvements in depression (5/7), stress (5/7), distress (5/7), anxiety (4/7) and voices (3/5). One participant showed a deterioration in anxiety (1/7) and dissociation (1/7). At the group level (n = 7), there were significant improvements in depression, stress, distress, voices and delusions. The improvements in voices, delusions and distress were sustained at 6- to 8-week follow-up, but depression and stress dropped slightly to trend-level improvements. CFTp is a feasible and acceptable intervention for psychosis, and further investigation is warranted with a randomized controlled trial.

Toward an organizational theory of meetings: Structuration of organizational meeting culture

Although research on meetings generally regards them as noteworthy organizational events, studies tend to focus on an individual or group level of analysis, conceiving of meetings as a phenomenon that happens in organizations but does not shape them. Integrating research on work meetings, structuration theory, and organizational culture, this paper develops the concept of organizational meeting cultures and suggests structuration theory as a framework for explaining their emergence, reproduction, and alteration. We propose a model of organizational meeting culture that theorizes work meetings as a foundational activity that shapes and reifies organizational cultures over time, contributing to their distinctiveness, and influencing patterns of perception regarding what is valued, expected, rewarded, and supported in specific work environments. It concludes with an agenda to be pursued in future research on the structuration of meeting culture.

Establishing a research agenda for broadening participation of Black men in computing, informatics, and engineering

The underrepresentation of Black men in computing, informatics, and engineering is at a critical state. Much research has been attributed to the increase in women's representation in Information Technology (IT), but little has explicitly focused on Black men. Additionally, the research with Black men in IT studies the population from a group level of analysis rather than an individual level. This conceptual and theoretical manuscript positions the author as an exemplar, a Black man and IT, and uses theoretical linkages of the Individual Differences Theory of Gender and IT. The result is a research plan to study the underrepresentation of Black men in IT, exploring individual and group level analysis, introducing qualitative artifacts, and showcasing successful Black men in IT.

Charismatic Nonverbal Displays by Leaders Signal Receptivity and Formidability, and Tap Approach and Avoidance Motivational Systems.

Status cues and signals act as guidance systems by regulating social approach and avoidance. Applied to leadership, we hypothesized that nonverbal displays conveying the dual-status messages of receptivity and formidability and the approach/avoidance motives they activate set conditions for charismatic, leader–follower relationships. We investigated perceptions of charisma, the nonverbal signals associated with them, the motives they energize, and the relationships they support across levels of analysis. At the social–perceptual level (studies 1a–d), eligible voters rated political leaders’ traits after viewing silent, 30-s videos of speeches presented online. As predicted, perceptions of politicians’ receptivity (warmth and attractiveness) and formidability (competence and power) were independently associated with perceptions of their charisma; perceptions of trustworthiness and authenticity showed weaker or negligible associations. Results were similar when the stimuli were female, Jamaican educational leaders. Leaders’ nonverbal behavior was linked to perceptions of their receptivity, formidability, and charisma in study 2. At the brain systems level, studies 3a and 3b tested predictions that charismatic nonverbal performances stimulate equivalent degrees of approach and avoidance motivation in observers. Brain recordings via electroencephalography (EEG) were made while undergraduates viewed leaders rated high or low in charisma. Discrepancies in alpha activity in the left and the right frontal hemispheres (associated with approach and avoidance, respectively) were relatively diminished when participants viewed highly charismatic political leaders, indicating that approach and avoidance motives are energized in response to charismatic performances. The EEG patterns for Jamaican leaders were similar but not significant. At the group level of analysis, study 4 sought evidence that charismatic leaders create uniquely influential relationships with followers. Video recordings of student leaders interacting with pairs of unfamiliar students during a group decision-making task were assessed for leader receptivity, formidability, and charisma by independent sets of undergraduate judges. Perceptions of student leaders’ receptivity and formidability predicted their charisma, and charismatic leaders were most influential in bringing followers to privately accept a controversial group decision. Across studies, evidence generally supported hypotheses generated from status cues theory: charismatic leadership builds upon the nonverbal projection of dual-status messages and the approach/avoidance motives they engender, setting conditions for a uniquely powerful brand of influence.

Collectivism-individualism: Strategic behavior in tacit coordination games.

The effect of culture on strategic interaction has been widely explored. However, the effect of the cultural background on focal point selection in tacit coordination games has not yet been examined. To accomplish this goal, in this study we have focused on the individual level of analysis. That is, we constructed a strategic profile to model the behavior of each individual player and then used unsupervised learning methods on the individual data points. We have chosen to examine two groups of participants, Israelis (ICB) and Chinese (CCB), each belonging to a different cultural background representing individualist and collectivist societies, respectively. Clustering the individual strategic profiles has allowed us to gain further insights regarding the differences between the behavioral strategies of each cultural group. The results of this study demonstrate that the cultural background has a profound effect on the strategic profile and on the ability to succeed in tacit coordination games. Moreover, the current study emphasizes the importance of relying on the individual level of analysis and not only on the group level of analysis. The implications of these results and potential future studies are discussed.

Towards a Person-Oriented Approach to Psychotherapy Research.

Common conclusions from traditional psychotherapy research are that we still do not know how or why even our most well-studied interventions produce change, and that there is little evidence that any form of psychotherapy is generally more effective than any other. This has led some researchers to the so-called Dodo Bird Verdict, that all forms of psychotherapy are equally effective, and to the conclusion that what is at work are “common factors” that have little to do with treatment method. An alternative explanation, however, is that the traditional research paradigm is insufficiently sensitive to provide us with the required kind of knowledge. First, the outcome in typical RCTs is averaged across individuals, and at best complemented by a search for predictors in the form of stable individual differences. This means that this research stays at a group level of analysis and is insensitive to variation and change in individual patients. Second, the independent variable in RCTs does not consist in any well-controlled psychological intervention, but in large-scale treatment packages that contain a large number of interventions over a considerable time period. In other words, this research is insensitive to the effects of specific treatment interventions. Third, traditional psychotherapy research is insensitive to the therapist and patient as individual persons, and their specific interaction. It is argued that a person-oriented approach to psychotherapy, which is idiographic, holistic and interactional, may be able to overcome some of these problems by being more sensitive to (1) the treatment course of individual patients, and patterns during that course; (2) the effects of the specific interventions that are implemented over time, and (3) the personal characteristics of patient and therapist, and nuances of their interaction.

The role of IT in innovation at the individual and group level – a literature review

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review and integrate cross-disciplinary research on the role of information technology (IT) on innovation published in the past 10 years. Design/methodology/approach The study follows the recommendations for systematic integrative literature review. The authors focus on the manuscripts published in the period between 2009 and 2018 in the top 8 Information Systems journals. Further, the authors specifically focus on the studies conducted at the individual and/or group level of analysis. Findings First, the authors find that there has been relatively little research published focusing on the role of IT in innovation at the individual and/or group level of analysis. Among the published studies the authors find equivocal insights on the role of IT in innovation. While IT can support innovation, it can also cause technostress and become an impeding element by institutionalizing established organizational practices. Originality/value Despite the importance of the topic, there has been little research on the role of IT in supporting innovation published in the small-and medium-size enterprise development journals. Through cross-disciplinary integration, the authors’ provide a foundation for future research on the topic.

The impact of classroom climate on students' perception of social exclusion in secondary special education

The present study examines the relation between classroom climate in schools for secondary special education and students' perceived social exclusion. A total of 401 Dutch adolescents (70.3% males) with conduct problems, attending schools for special education, filled out questionnaires on classroom climate, problems in social information processing, externalizing behavior and perceived social exclusion. Results showed that a positive classroom climate was associated with a reduction of students' externalizing behavior problems and perceived social exclusion, which was associated with improvements in social information processing. However, these relations were only found at the within group level of analysis (between students) and not at the between group level (between classes); thus contextual (class level) effects could not be demonstrated. It can be carefully stated that a positive classroom climate in secondary special education may protect against perceived social exclusion. Future research is required to examine whether our findings can be replicated in other schools for secondary special education or can be generalized to secondary education in general.

Assessing the Effects of Partisan Bias at the Group Level of Analysis: A Hidden Profile Experiment

Although there is some evidence in the political arena that pooling information can overcome individual biases to improve decision-making accuracy, research from the group communication and psychology arenas suggests otherwise. Specifically, research on the hidden profile, a group-level decision-making problem, suggests that groups are decidedly biased when making decisions. This laboratory experiment tested whether or not partisan biases manifest at the group level of analysis. In the main, it was found that groups composed of either all Republican or all Democratic group members were likely to make a decision that was consonant with their party’s political ideology, which ultimately impacted hidden profile solution rates (i.e., decision accuracy). Moreover, supplemental analyses suggest that Republican and Democratic groups reached their biased decisions through different means. A discussion is provided in which the implications of these results are considered.

Explaining Cohesion Linkages in Workgroups: The Cooperative Communication in Collectivism and High Power Distance Workgroup Context

This study develops a multi-level model to advance research on how cultural context in workplace moderates the relationship between cooperative communication and group cohesion in a collectivist workplace setting. We tested the model by using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) with the data obtained from 375 employees representing 48 workgroups in a Malaysian organization. It is revealed that at the group level of analysis, cooperative communication is more strongly related to group cohesion-based in the collectivist cultural context in the individual level of analysis. On the other hand, the power distance context in the work group at the individual level of analysis did not moderate the relationship between cooperative communication and group cohesion in the group level of analysis. Practical implications are discussed. Keywords: leader-member exchange, team-member exchange, cooperative communication, group cohesion, collectivist and power distance.

Improving assessment accuracy for lake biological condition by classifying lakes with diatom typology, varying metrics and modeling multimetric indices

Site grouping by regions or typologies, site-specific modeling and varying metrics among site groups are four approaches that account for natural variation, which can be a major source of error in ecological assessments. Using a data set from the 2007 National Lakes Assessment project of the USEPA, we compared performances of multimetric indices (MMI) of biological condition that were developed: (1) with different lake grouping methods, ecoregions or diatom typologies; (2) by varying or not varying metrics among site groups; and (3) with different statistical techniques for modeling diatom metric values expected for minimally disturbed condition for each lake. Hierarchical modeling of MMIs, i.e. grouping sites by ecoregions or typologies and then modeling natural variability in metrics among lakes within groups, substantially improved MMI performance compared to using either ecoregions or site-specific modeling alone. Compared with MMIs based on ecoregion site groups, MMI precision and sensitivity to human disturbance were better when sites were grouped by diatom typologies and assessing performance nationwide. However, when MMI performance was evaluated at site group levels, as some government agencies often do, there was little difference in MMI performance between the two site grouping methods. Low numbers of reference and highly impacted sites in some typology groups likely limited MMI performance at the group level of analysis. Varying metrics among site groups did not improve MMI performance. Random forest models for site-specific expected metric values performed better than classification and regression tree and multiple linear regression, except when numbers of reference sites were small in site groups. Then classification and regression tree models were most precise. Based on our results, we recommend hierarchical modeling in future large scale lake assessments where lakes are grouped by ecoregions or diatom typologies and site-specific metric models are used to establish expected metric values.

Leader and Peer Ethical Behavior Influences on Job Embeddedness

Drawing on the social learning theory, the current research proposes that employees learn specific ethical behavior by observing others (leader and peers), thus influencing their job embeddedness. This study examined the mediating and moderating contextual variables in the relationship between ethical leadership and job embeddedness using a sample of 343 employees from 40 different companies. Results revealed that ethical leadership is related to job embeddedness and that perceived supervisor support mediated the influence of ethical leadership on job embeddedness. Also, peer unethical behavior moderated the indirect ethical leadership–job embeddedness relationship at the group level of analysis. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed. Specifically, this study proposes that there is a need to select middle managers that are focused on people’s needs and to train and motivate supervisors to support and stimulate their subordinates.

Linking positive affect and motivation to transfer within training: a multilevel study

Motivation to transfer is a critical element for successful training transfer. Whereas recent research has shown that training‐related factors such as training design are related to motivation to transfer, participants’ affective experiences have been neglected. Based on the broaden‐and‐build theory of positive emotions, we conducted a multilevel study to investigate the relationship between positive affect and motivation to transfer at the individual and at the group level of analysis. A total of 867 training participants drawn from 78 three‐day training programmes were surveyed on the first day (T1) and the last day (T2) of the training. As expected, positive affect was found to be related to motivation to transfer at both T1 and T2. Furthermore, the relationship between positive affect at T1 and motivation to transfer at T2 was mediated by motivation to transfer at the individual and the group level at T1 and by positive affect at the individual level at T2.

Estimating Group-Level Relationships: General Recommendations and Considerations for the Use of Intraclass Correlation Coefficients

In this investigation, we argue for why and how available intraclass correlation coefficients and other types of reliability estimates can be employed as sample-based reliability estimates within primary and meta-analytic studies when relationships between group-level phenomena are of interest. Group-level correlations and reliability estimates were obtained from 46 studies examining organizational climate–performance relationships. We illustrate how the group-level reliability estimates can be used to correct correlations for predictor and criterion unreliability. Procedures are presented for computing the sampling variances of individually corrected correlations that account for sampling error in the group-level reliability estimates. Support was found for the conservative nature of meta-analytic parameter estimates when group-level reliability information is sample-based as opposed to assumed population values. In addition, our analyses indicated that conclusions about substantive relationships between group-level variables can change based on availability of sample-based reliabilities within both primary and meta-analytic studies. Results from this study suggest that researchers should rely on sample-based meta-analytic procedures when examining the generalizability of group-level relationships. This study also demonstrates the importance of using all available reliability information and accounting for sampling error in the reliability estimates when conducting meta-analyses at the group level of analysis. This study breaks ground by systematically examining the use of intraclass correlation coefficients as reliability estimates within group-level meta-analytic studies. Furthermore, illustrative analyses provide guidance to primary and meta-analytic researchers in regard to how to correct group-level correlations for unreliability in the predictor, criterion, or both whenever and in whatever proportions the artifact information is available.

The subjective well-being of group leaders as explained by the quality of leader–member exchange

Although a great deal of research explores the ramifications of leader–member exchange (LMX) quality for the well-being of followers, leader well-being is largely overlooked. To address this gap, we investigate whether leaders' well-being, in the form of positive affect and job stress, can be explained by LMX quality at the group level of analysis. We analyzed data from 1297 group members within 162 groups matched with individual leaders. Results showed that leaders' positive affect and job stress were uniquely explained by LMX differentiation (group-member data), even after several relevant variables, including fundamental leader attitudes and average LMX (group-member data), were taken into account. A subsequent analytical step revealed a significant interaction between average LMX and LMX differentiation for leader job stress, yet not for leader positive affect. Specifically, the positive relationship between LMX differentiation and leader job stress was discovered to be greater at low average LMX than at high average LMX. Overall, the findings highlight leaders' well-being as a promising avenue for future LMX research and a group level of analysis as useful in studying social exchange.

An empirical examination of group emotional intelligence in public sector workgroups

Purpose – Despite increased calls for incorporating emotional intelligence (EI) in workgroups and teams, there exists a need to develop empirical instruments that can measure group-level emotional intelligence (GEI), and assess its efficacy in predicting outcomes such as performance and learning ability. This paper aims to empirically demonstrate how GEI affects the performance and learning ability of public sector workgroups in city governments. Design/methodology/approach – Using Ghuman’s (2011) proposed theoretical model of GEI as a two-component system, an empirical instrument is created that measures GEI at the group level of analysis. Regression analyses are performed for 44 workgroups in the public sector organizations, with group performance and group learning ability as the dependent variables. Results show a significant positive relationship between GEI and the outcomes of group performance and group learning ability. Findings – The findings demonstrate that a competent instrument has been developed for GEI, and that it can be used to measure the construct in workgroups and teams. The results also empirically demonstrate the importance of GEI in workgroups, by demonstrating that an increased GEI positively enhances the group’s performance and learning ability. Research limitations/implications – The implication of this research is the creation and testing of an instrument that allows researchers in GEI to utilize this instrument for future studies concerning GEI. Practical implications – Such findings show that GEI can be an added resource for workgroups to foster positive within-group relations. It can assist in enhancing group learning and group performance. The study also demonstrates that groups that develop a group emotional awareness, and that can manage within group emotional relationships, may become more productive, and more able to learn. These results can be utilized to bolster the arguments of fostering within group emotional socialization, helping nurture a positive group culture and forming a culture of group affect, i.e. a clear understanding of how to perceive and manage affect within the group. Originality/value – The study builds on past theoretical understanding of GEI to create a model that showcases the effects of GEI on group outcomes such as group learning and group performance. It thereby fulfills a need for an empirical instrument that is able to measure GEI and utilize this instrument to ascertain the effect of GEI on group performance and group learning ability.

Antecedents and consequences of observing workplace sexual behavior

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the antecedents and consequences of non-harassing sexual behavior in the workplace. Individual perceptions of climate were examined as antecedents; physical strain and turnover intentions were studied as consequences of non-harassing sexual behavior at work. Design/methodology/approach – Questionnaires were administered to two samples of working adults. In the second sample, criterion measures were collected four months after the predictors. Findings – Innovative and traditional climates were associated with workplace sexual behavior; sexual behavior was positively associated with physical strain and turnover intentions, both concurrently and four months later. Research limitations/implications – Climate was not assessed at the group level of analysis; only individual perceptions of workplace climate were measured. The research design was not longitudinal, thus causal conclusions cannot be drawn. Despite these limitations, the results suggest that perceptions of climate are related to sexual behaviors in the workplace. Further, the findings highlight negative outcomes associated with observing even non-harassing sexual behavior at work. Practical implications – Managers may consider implementing specific guidelines around non-harassing sexual behavior in the workplace. Organizational leaders may have the ability to affect how non-harassing sexual behavior is interpreted, based on the kinds of climates they create in their organizations. Originality/value – This is the first study that assesses both the antecedents and consequences of non-harassing sexual behavior. It expands the literature by including psychological perceptions of the workplace as predictors of sexual behavior at work.

Key Informant Models for Measuring Group-level Variables in Small Groups

We offer a new conceptualization and measurement models for constructs at the group-level of analysis in small group research. The conceptualization starts with classical notions of group behavior proposed by Tönnies, Simmel, and Weber and then draws upon plural subject theory by philosophers Gilbert and Tuomela to frame a new perspective applicable to many forms of small group behavior. In the proposed measurement model, a collective property is operationalized as shared interpersonal action that explicitly allows us to control for systematic (method) error and random error. Group members act as key informants of group properties and processes and are treated as methods in a multitrait multimethod setting to validate our models. The models are applied to data of 277 three-person groups to develop and illustrate new procedures for ascertaining variation in measures due to hypothesized construct(s), method error, and random error. Implications and guidelines for small group research are discussed.

Energizing organizational research: Advancing the energy field with group concepts and theories

While energy research has examined behaviors and decision-making in residential settings, it has largely failed to study these behaviors within the commercial sector. It has also neglected investigating these dimensions from a group level of analysis. Yet groups influence behaviors like energy consumption in addition to individuals, and forms of such influence – like collective outcome efficacy or team cohesion – requires research at the group level. This review offers an overview of the area and tools to start this work, first by examining how three levers of behavior change in energy studies – cognitions, social structures and technologies – have mainly been studied from an individual level of analysis. Second, it reviews energy research in commercial environments and finds that only a small number of studies since 1980 have been undertaken with a group level focus. Given this gap, a typology of key group constructs and levels of analysis was developed and measures were reviewed that fit into this typology. This led to the identification of types of questions that can be asked in each of the technological, structural and cognitive energy areas with a group focus.

Impact of Socialized Uncertainty on Group Decision Making

Many stakeholders in society are concerned about the effectiveness of decision making behavior for our future generation of leaders. Risk taking behavior has been studied in the context of cultural factors (including gender) or decision making but rarely have both of these dimensions been examined simultaneously especially with emerging business leaders. Decision making behavior has not been studied at the group level of analysis in the context of socialized culture using samples of young emerging executives. Therefore, the authors conducted a controlled experiment with senior university students to test the impact of risk taking culture and gender on group decision making behavior in a complex project. In their experiment gender did not impact decision making behavior but the socialized uncertainty was a statistically significant casual factor. The authors conducted a controlled experiment with senior university students to test the impact of risk taking culture and gender on group decision making behavior in a complex project. Although their results agreed with the literature, one finding was completely opposite from their hypothesis. In the authors' experiment, the participant's gender did not impact decision making behavior but the socialized uncertainty factor was statistically significant in the logistic regression models.