Groundwater Exchange Research Articles

Estimation of seawater–groundwater exchange rate: case study in a tidal flat with a large-scale seepage face (Laizhou Bay, China)

The exchange rate between seawater and groundwater in a tidal flat was investigated at Laizhou Bay, China, where there are large-scale seepage faces with horizontal extension of several hundred meters developed during low tides. Taking into account the effects of seepage face and density, a simple and efficient method for estimating seawater–groundwater exchange rate is proposed, based on field measurements of groundwater hydraulic head, temperature and salinity. First, the exchange rate at each well was obtained using the generalized Darcy’s law, then the results were interpolated and integrated along the whole transect. The total submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) and inflow were estimated to be 8.8 and 15.3 m3 d−1 m−1, respectively. The spatial distributions of SGD and inflow were different from those of sandy or gravel beaches possibly owing to the low-permeability sediment (silty sand with mud), very gentle slope, and the large-scale seepage faces. A freshwater discharge tube was identified near the low-tide line, as evidenced by significant increase in outflow and low salinity of groundwater observed there. The SGD from the seepage faces accounted for ∼21 % of the total SGD. The outflow rate that occurred from the seepage faces, and the ratio of the outflow from the seepage faces to the total outflow, decreased seaward significantly and monotonically.

Estuarine canal estate waters: Hotspots of CO2 outgassing driven by enhanced groundwater discharge?

Increased water-to-air carbon dioxide fluxes are a potentially important, but as yet unquantified, consequence of canal estate developments in estuaries surrounded by coastal wetlands. We used detailed pCO2 and radon (222Rn, a submarine groundwater discharge tracer) surveys to investigate whether water-to-air CO2 fluxes were enhanced in residential canal systems, and whether groundwater exchange may drive pCO2 distribution. Observations were performed along 300km of canals, rivers, estuaries, and coastal embayments from the Gold Coast (Queensland, Australia), one of the largest estuarine canal systems globally. Overall, residential canal estate waters were supersaturated in CO2 with pCO2 ranging from 372 to 3639 μatm and 434 to 3080 μatm in the dry and wet season surveys, respectively. pCO2 usually increased in areas of reduced connectivity (i.e., poorly flushed dead end canals). A stronger correlation between 222Rn and pCO2 than between dissolved oxygen and pCO2 implied that groundwater seepage (not pelagic respiration) was the major driver pCO2 supersaturation within the canal system. Average area-weighted water-to-air CO2 fluxes within canals were 34 and 67mmol C m−2 d−1 during the dry and wet seasons respectively. When upscaled to the entire Gold Coast estuarine system, residential canal contributed 46% and 56% of the total flux of CO2 to the atmosphere during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. These results imply that areas that were previous atmospheric carbon sinks (i.e. coastal wetlands) have become sources of CO2 to the atmosphere since the development of residential canal estates.

Influence of surface water level fluctuation and riverbed sediment deposits on groundwater regime

Abstract The spatial and temporal patterns of surface water (SW) - groundwater (GW) exchange are significantly affected by riverbed silting, clogging or erosion processes, by altering the thickness and hydraulic conductivity of riverbed sediments. The duration of SW-GW exchange is controlled by the drainage and infiltration resistance of river bottom sediments (e.g. Andrássy et al., 2012). Generally, these two parameters primarily depend on the hydraulic conductivity and on the thickness of clogged layer. In this study the flow processes between GW and SW were modeled by model TRIWACO for different infiltration resistance and drainage resistance of riverbed sediments. The model area is situated on the Rye Island, which is a lowland area with very low slope. In this area a channel network was built up, where the flow conditions are controlled by water-gates. Because of the low slope and the system of water gates built on the channels, the riverbeds are influenced by intensive clogging processes. First, the applicability of model TRIWACO in the study area was tested by modelling the response of GW on SW level fluctuation. It was simulated, how the regulation of water level and flow direction in the channels influence the GW level, especially in extreme hydrological conditions (drought/flood), and if the GW flow direction and GW level change as it was expected. Next, the influence of channel network silting up on GW-SW interaction was modeled. The thickness of riverbed sediments was measured and their hydraulic conductivity from disturbed sediment samples was evaluated. The assessed hydraulic conductivity was used to calculate the infiltration resistance and the drainage resistance of riverbed sediments in the study area. Then, the GW level and flow direction was simulated for different infiltration resistance and drainage resistance of sediments.

An evaluation of analytical stream to groundwater exchange models: a comparison of gross exchanges based on different spatial flow distribution assumptions

Abstract. In this paper, a new method for estimating gross gains and losses between streams and groundwater is developed and evaluated against two existing approaches. These three stream to groundwater exchange (SGE) estimation methods are distinct in their assumptions on the spatial distribution of the inflowing and outflowing fluxes along the stream. The two existing methods assume that the fluxes are independent and in a specific sequence, while the third and newly derived method assumes that both fluxes occur simultaneously and uniformly throughout the stream. The analytic expressions in connection to the underlying assumptions are investigated through numerical stream simulations to evaluate the individual and mutual dynamics of the SGE estimation methods and to understand the causes for the differences in performance. The results show that the three methods produce significantly different results and that the mean absolute normalized error can have up to an order of magnitude difference between the methods. These differences between the SGE methods are entirely due to the assumptions of the SGE spatial dynamics of the methods, and the performance for a particular approach strongly decreases if its assumptions are not fulfilled. The assessment of the three methods through numerical simulations, representing a variety of SGE dynamics, shows that the method introduced, considering simultaneous stream gains and losses, presents overall the highest performance according to the simulations. As the existing methods provide the minimum and maximum realistic values of SGE within a stream reach, all three methods could be used in conjunction for a full range of estimates. These SGE methods can also be used in conjunction with other end-member mixing models to acquire even more hydrologic information as both require the same type of input data.

Numerical study of wave effects on groundwater flow and solute transport in a laboratory beach

A numerical study was undertaken to investigate the effects of waves on groundwater flow and associated inland-released solute transport based on tracer experiments in a laboratory beach. The MARUN model was used to simulate the density-dependent groundwater flow and subsurface solute transport in the saturated and unsaturated regions of the beach subjected to waves. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software, Fluent, was used to simulate waves, which were the seaward boundary condition for MARUN. A no-wave case was also simulated for comparison. Simulation results matched the observed water table and concentration at numerous locations. The results revealed that waves generated seawater–groundwater circulations in the swash and surf zones of the beach, which induced a large seawater–groundwater exchange across the beach face. In comparison to the no-wave case, waves significantly increased the residence time and spreading of inland-applied solutes in the beach. Waves also altered solute pathways and shifted the solute discharge zone further seaward. Residence Time Maps (RTM) revealed that the wave-induced residence time of the inland-applied solutes was largest near the solute exit zone to the sea. Sensitivity analyses suggested that the change in the permeability in the beach altered solute transport properties in a nonlinear way. Due to the slow movement of solutes in the unsaturated zone, the mass of the solute in the unsaturated zone, which reached up to 10% of the total mass in some cases, constituted a continuous slow release of solutes to the saturated zone of the beach. This means of control was not addressed in prior studies.

Collaborative modelling and integrated decision support system analysis of a developed terminal lake basin

A terminal lake basin in west-central Nevada, Walker Lake, has undergone drastic change over the past 90 yrs due to upstream water use for agriculture. Decreased inflows to the lake have resulted in 100 km2 decrease in lake surface area and a total loss of fisheries due to salinization. The ecologic health of Walker Lake is of great concern as the lake is a stopover point on the Pacific route for migratory birds from within and outside the United States. Stakeholders, water institutions, and scientists have engaged in collaborative modeling and the development of a decision support system that is being used to develop and analyze management change options to restore the lake. Here we use an integrated management and hydrologic model that relies on state-of-the-art simulation capabilities to evaluate the benefits of using integrated hydrologic models as components of a decision support system. Nonlinear feedbacks among climate, surface-water and groundwater exchanges, and water use present challenges for simulating realistic outcomes associated with management change. Integrated management and hydrologic modeling provides a means of simulating benefits associated with management change in the Walker River basin where drastic changes in the hydrologic landscape have taken place over the last century. Through the collaborative modeling process, stakeholder support is increasing and possibly leading to management change options that result in reductions in Walker Lake salt concentrations, as simulated by the decision support system.

Using new mass balance methods to estimate gross surface water and groundwater exchange with naturally occurring tracer 222Rn in data poor regions: a case study in northwest China

AbstractGiven that the concentration of 222Rn in groundwater is much higher than that in surface water and that its radioactive half‐life (3.83 d) is short, 222Rn is an effective tracer of groundwater–surface water interactions. In this study, a new mass balance method is presented, which can be used to estimate specific groundwater–surface water interactions within a river reach. Three possible situations of interaction between groundwater and surface water are considered, and equations based on the mass conservation of 222Rn are formulated for judging specific groundwater–surface water interaction processes and for calculating water flux. A case study was conducted for the Nalenggele River, Northwest China, to demonstrate the usefulness of this method. Samples of river water and groundwater containing 222Rn were collected from the study area to estimate the interactions between groundwater and surface water. The amount of water exchanged during these interactions was estimated and the results show that transformations between groundwater and surface water are frequent along the stream. The 222Rn mass balance method is highly sensitive for studying such interactions, even in areas for which conventional hydrologic data are sparse. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Stratigraphic controls on fluid and solute fluxes across the sediment—water interface of an estuary

Shallow stratigraphic features, such as infilled paleovalleys, modify fresh groundwater discharge to coastal waters and fluxes of saltwater and nutrients across the sediment—water interface. We quantify the spatial distribution of shallow surface water—groundwater exchange and nitrogen fluxes near a paleovalley in Indian River Bay, Delaware, using a hand resistivity probe, conventional seepage meters, and pore‐water samples. In the interfluve (region outside the paleovalley) most nitrate‐rich fresh groundwater discharges rapidly near the coast with little mixing of saline pore water, and nitrogen transport is largely conservative. In the peat‐filled paleovalley, fresh groundwater discharge is negligible, and saltwater exchange is deep (∼1 m). Long pore‐water residence times and abundant sulfate and organic matter promote sulfate reduction and ammonium production in shallow sediment. Reducing, iron‐rich fresh groundwater beneath paleovalley peat discharges diffusely around paleovalley margins offshore. In this zone of diffuse fresh groundwater discharge, saltwater exchange and dispersion are enhanced, ammonium is produced in shallow sediments, and fluxes of ammonium to surface water are large. By modifying patterns of groundwater discharge and the nature of saltwater exchange in shallow sediments, paleovalleys and other stratigraphic features influence the geochemistry of discharging groundwater. Redox reactions near the sediment—water interface affect rates and patterns of geochemical fluxes to coastal surface waters. For example, at this site, more than 99% of the groundwater‐borne nitrate flux to the Delaware Inland Bays occurs within the interfluve portion of the coastline, and more than 50% of the ammonium flux occurs at the paleovalley margin.

Banking for the future: Prospects for integrated cyclical water management

Integrated management of surface water and groundwater can provide efficient and flexible use of water by making the best use of the properties of different types of water resources. Integrated cyclical water management can help adaptation to climate variation and uncertainty by varying the proportion of surface water and groundwater allocations over time in response to changing water availability. Water use entitlements and rules specify conditions for the use, storage and exchange of surface water and groundwater. These entitlements and rules provide certainty for water users, investors and managers. Entitlements and rules also need to be flexible to enable users and managers to respond to changing water availability and knowledge. Arrangements to provide certainty and flexibility can conflict. For example guarantees of specific long-term allocations of water, or shares of allocations can conflict with arrangements to bank water underground during wet periods and then to use an increased amount of groundwater in dry periods. Systems of water entitlements and rules need to achieve a balance between certainty and flexibility. This article explores the effect of water entitlements and rules, and arrangements to provide certainty and flexibility for the integration of surface water and groundwater management over time. The analysis draws on case studies from the Namoi River basin in New South Wales and the South Platte River basin in Colorado. Integrated cyclical water management requires a comprehensive, flexible and balanced system of water entitlements and rules that allow extended water carryover, water banking, aquifer storage and recovery over the wet and dry climate cycle. Opportunities for extended carryover and aquifer storage and recovery over the wet and dry climate cycle merit further consideration in New South Wales, Colorado and other jurisdictions.

Exploring the long-term balance between net precipitation and net groundwater exchange in Florida seepage lakes

The long-term balance between net precipitation and net groundwater exchange that maintains thousands of seepage lakes in Florida’s karst terrain is explored at a representative lake basin and then regionally for the State’s peninsular lake district. The 15-year water budget of Lake Starr includes El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-related extremes in rainfall, and provides the longest record of Bowen ratio energy-budget (BREB) lake evaporation and lake-groundwater exchanges in the southeastern United States. Negative net precipitation averaging −25 cm/yr at Lake Starr overturns the previously-held conclusion that lakes in this region receive surplus net precipitation. Net groundwater exchange with the lake was positive on average but too small to balance the net precipitation deficit. Groundwater pumping effects and surface-water withdrawals from the lake widened the imbalance. Satellite-based regional estimates of potential evapotranspiration at five large lakes in peninsular Florida compared well with basin-scale evaporation measurements from seven open-water sites that used BREB methods. The regional average lake evaporation estimated for Lake Starr during 1996–2011 was within 5% of its measured average, and regional net precipitation agreed within 10%. Regional net precipitation to lakes was negative throughout central peninsular Florida and the net precipitation deficit increased by about 20 cm from north to south. Results indicate that seepage lakes farther south on the peninsula receive greater net groundwater inflow than northern lakes and imply that northern lakes are in comparatively leakier hydrogeologic settings. Findings reveal the peninsular lake district to be more vulnerable than was previously realized to drier climate, surface-water withdrawals from lakes, and groundwater pumping effects.

The representative stream length for estimating surface water–groundwater exchange using Darcy’s Law

Summary Groundwater discharge to streams is spatially variable. We often estimate this flux based on an averaged measurement of hydraulic gradient and local estimate of hydraulic conductivity. It is important to understand how this estimated flux value relates to the flux into the stream. In this study we introduce the concept of representative stream length. The estimated flux value best represents the groundwater discharge over the representative stream length. We simulated groundwater discharge to a stream using synthetic stochastic hydraulic conductivity fields to investigate the impact of heterogeneity (variance and correlation length) on the estimated groundwater discharge and the representative stream length of this discharge. To obtain estimates of hydraulic conductivity between the stream and piezometer, the groundwater head response to a known change in stream stage was simulated and analyzed using a well-known analytical solution. The results of the theoretical investigation showed that the representative stream length of the groundwater discharge estimate was approximately equal to the distance of the piezometer from the stream, that is, groundwater discharge estimated using Darcy’s law from a piezometer 50 m from a stream will approximately represent the discharge occurring over a 50 m length of the stream. Furthermore, the results suggest that the variability in the estimated groundwater discharge significantly reduced when the distance of the piezometer from the stream increased. A field experiment was conducted using two controlled stream-stage change tests and found that results were consistent with the theoretical experiment. That is, as the distance of the piezometer from the stream increased, the variability in discharge estimates reduced. The implication of this finding is that future studies estimating groundwater discharge to streams applying Darcy’s law need to consider the representative stream length, as this will impact the spatial scale over which the discharge estimate can be applied.

Monitoring and modeling the effects of groundwater flow on arsenic transport in Datong Basin

Although arsenic-contaminated groundwater in the Datong Basin has been studied for more than 10 years, little has been known about the complex patterns of solute transport in the aquifer systems. Field monitoring and transient 3D unsaturated groundwater flow modeling studies were carried out on the riparian zone of the Sanggan River at the Datong Basin, northern China, to better understand the effects of groundwater flow on As mobilization and transport. The results indicate that irrigation is the primary factor in determining the groundwater flow paths. Irrigation can not only increase groundwater level and reduce horizontal groundwater velocity and thereby accelerate vertical and horizontal groundwater exchange among sand, silt and clay formations, but also change the HS− concentration, redox conditions of the shallow groundwater. Results of net groundwater flux estimation suggest that vertical infiltration is likely the primary control of As transport in the vadose zone, while horizontal water exchange is dominant in controlling As migration within the sand aquifers. Recharge water, including irrigation return water and flushed saltwater, travels downward from the ground surface to the aquifer and then nearly horizontally across the sand aquifer. The maximum value of As enriched in the riparian zone is roughly estimated to be 1 706.2 mg·d−1 for a horizontal water exchange of 8.98 m3·d−1 close to the river and an As concentration of 190 μg·L−1

River–aquifer interactions and their relationship to stygofauna assemblages: A case study of the Gwydir River alluvial aquifer (New South Wales, Australia)

In contrast to surface water ecosystems, groundwater ecosystems are usually considered to have relatively stable conditions and physically inert environments. However, many groundwater ecosystems undergo substantial changes through space and time, related to fluxes in groundwater flow, exchange and nutrient imports.In this study we used hydrochemical data to: 1) determine the different hydrogeological conditions in an alluvial system, the shallow Gwydir River alluvial aquifer (located in Northern New South Wales, Australia); and 2) analyze the relationship between hydrochemical conditions and the composition of stygofauna assemblages in the aquifer.Using hydrochemical modeling and multivariate analyses, four main hydrogeological situations were defined as occurring in the aquifer. Bores were classified as having either a high, low or no influence from or exchange with the river. The latter group was further subdivided into those of low and high salinity.Further analysis combining the biological and hydrochemical data identified two main groups of samples. The first group was composed mainly of samples related to the aquifer groundwater which had higher richness and abundance of fauna compared to samples in the second group which was comprised of samples affected by stream water leakage and samples related to the highest salinities. These results suggest that more stable conditions (mainly related to steadier groundwater head levels) and lower nitrate concentrations promoted a more diverse and abundant stygofauna community.

Alkalinity capture during microbial sulfate reduction and implications for the acidification of inland aquatic ecosystems

Increased sulfate levels caused by salinisation associated with water table elevation has led to reduced sulfur accumulation in many inland (historically fresh) water bodies. Subsequent oxidation of the accumulated reduced sulfur is acid generating and, in the absence of sufficient acid-neutralising capacity, results in wetland acidification and associated toxic effects. Although alkalinity is generated during sulfate reduction, if this is not captured in a solid phase it may be removed from the reduction site via surface or groundwater exchange. This study examines the processes controlling the generation and retention of acid-neutralising capacity during the reduction phase. We use thermodynamic modelling to demonstrate that the ionic composition of a wetland’s source water, particularly the calcium to sulfate ratio, is an important factor in determining whether sufficient alkalinity can be stored (as calcium carbonate) during sulfate reduction to avoid acidification upon re-oxidation. Through controlled reactor experiments, where microbial sulfate reduction was induced in a wetland sediment suspension in the presence of a range of calcium (and magnesium) concentrations, we confirm the importance of carbonate precipitation for alkalinity storage. The reactor experiments also highlight the role of the sediment for solid-phase alkalinity storage and subsequent acid buffering and show that the extreme pH values predicted by modelling based on ionic composition alone are attenuated in the presence of natural sediment. We outline an approach in which wetland source water composition and sediment buffering properties could be coupled to a hydrologic model to allow determination of the risk of wetland acidification during a sulfate reduction–oxidation cycle.

Spawning tactics of summer chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta in relation to channel complexity and hyporheic exchange

Vertical hydraulic gradient, channel hydraulic, and substratum data were collected at active chum salmon redds to evaluate their influence on redd site selection in the Kwethluk River, a wandering gravel-bedded tributary of Alaska’s Lower Kuskokwim River. Two distinct summer chum salmon spawning tacitcs: primary- and off-channel groups spawning in different hydraulic and thermal environments. Channel hydraulics, ground-surface water exchanges, and bed sediment data were collected throughout the range of topographic conditions at sites occupied and unoccupied by spawners. Analyses of these data showed that redd site selection was incoherent with channel hydraulics and substratum size, when all channel types were considered. Rather, spawning was associated with the exchange of river and groundwater at four spatial scales. In primary channels, chum salmon spawned only in reaches where the regional hydraulic gradient (regional scale) promoted the penetration of river water, or downwelling, into the bed sediments. Within these reaches, primary-channel spawning was influenced by bed topography (fluvial scale) that promoted strong localized downwelling; a logit model, fitted to constituent hydraulics, discriminated between selected and unselected sites with 89 % accuracy. In contrast, spawners in off-channel habitats (flood and spring channels) selected areas of upwelling groundwater, regardless of channel hydraulics and the regional hydraulic gradient. In parafluvial flood channels, spawners selected localized upwelling associated with short groundwater flow paths (parafluvial scale). In spring channels, within the floodplain’s forested riparia (orthofluvial scale), spawners eschewed areas of localized downwelling and uniformly selected upwelling zones feeding these channels. Thus, redd selectivity differentiated two spawning tactics (groups) in this complex channel network where ground and surface water exchange is an important predictor of spawning habitat.

Land–sea interface identification and submarine groundwater exchange (SGE) estimation

In this article we consider the problem of estimating submarine groundwater exchange quantities as an inverse problem in which the unknown is the location of the interface between the land and the sea, whereas overspecified boundary conditions are available on another part of the domain boundary. A data completion problem on a fictitious domain, which can be rather larger or smaller than the real one, is analyzed and the land–sea interface at the null hydraulic head isovalue is identified. Examples are given for different dimensions of the domain for a case of sea water intrusion and one of land water discharge. The sensitivity of the identification process to noisy data is considered.

Realizing ecosystem services: wetland hydrologic function along a gradient of ecosystem condition

Wetlands provide numerous ecosystem services, from habitat provision to pollutant removal, floodwater storage, and microclimate regulation. Delivery of particular services relies on specific ecological functions, and thus to varying degree on wetland ecological condition, commonly quantified as departure from minimally impacted reference sites. Condition assessments are widely adopted as regulatory indicators of ecosystem function, and for some services (e.g., habitat) links between condition and function are often direct. For others, however, links are more tenuous, and using condition alone to enumerate ecosystem value (e.g., for compensatory mitigation) may underestimate important services. Hydrologic function affects many services cited in support of wetland protection both directly (floodwater retention, microclimate regulation) and indirectly (biogeochemical cycling, pollutant removal). We investigated links between condition and hydrologic function to test the hypothesis, embedded in regulatory assessment of wetland value, that condition predicts function. Condition was assessed using rapid and intensive approaches, including Florida's official wetland assessment tool, in 11 isolated forested wetlands in north Florida (USA) spanning a land use intensity gradient. Hydrologic function was assessed using hydrologic regime (mean, variance, and rates of change of water depth), and measurements of groundwater exchange and evapotranspiration (ET). Despite a wide range in condition, no systematic variation in hydrologic regime was observed; indeed reference sites spanned the full range of variation. In contrast, ET was affected by land use, with higher rates in intensive (agriculture and urban) landscapes in response to higher leaf area. ET determines latent heat exchange, which regulates microclimate, a valuable service in urban heat islands. Higher ET also indicates higher productivity and thus carbon cycling. Groundwater exchange regularly reversed flow direction at all sites in response to rainfall. This buffering effect on regional aquifer levels, an underappreciated service of isolated wetlands, was provided regardless of condition. Intensive landscapes may benefit most from the hydrologic services that wetlands provide because that is where certain services (floodwater storage, microclimate regulation) are realized. While the portfolio of wetland services clearly changes with disturbance, our results support a revised approach to wetland valuation that recognizes the services that accrue from sustained or enhanced functions in these "working wetlands."

Hydrogeochemical niches associated with hyporheic exchange beneath an acid mine drainage-contaminated stream

summary Biological low-pH Fe(II)-oxidation creates terraced iron formations (TIFs) that remove Fe(III) from solution. TIFs can be used for remediation of acid mine drainage (AMD), however, as sediment depth increases, Fe(III)-reduction in anoxic subsurface areas may compromise treatment effectiveness. In this study we used near-surface electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) and in situ pore-water samplers to spatially resolve bulk conductivity changes within a TIF formed in a stream emanating from a large abandoned deep clay mine in Cambria County, Pennsylvania, USA. Because of the high fluid electrical conductivity of the emergent AMD (1860 lS), fresh water (42 lS) was added as a dilution tracer to visualize the spatial and temporal extent of hyporheic exchange and to characterize subsurface flow paths. Distinct hydrogeochemical niches were identified in the shallow subsurface beneath the stream by overlaying relative groundwater velocities (derived from ERI) with pore-water chemistry profiles. Niches were classified based on relatively ‘‘fast’’ versus ‘‘slow’’ rates of hyporheic exchange and oxic versus anoxic conditions. Pore-water concentrations and speciation of iron, pH, and redox potential differed between subsurface flow regimes. The greatest extent of hyporheic exchange was beneath the center of the stream, where a shallower ( 70 cm) Fe(II)-oxidizing zone. At these locations, relatively slower groundwater exchange may promote biotic Fe(II)-oxidation and improve the long-term stability of Fe sequestered in TIFs.

Gaining and losing stream reaches have opposite hydraulic conductivity distribution patterns

Abstract. In gaining streams, groundwater seeps out into the streams. In losing streams, stream water moves into groundwater systems. The flow moving through the streambed sediments under these two types of hydrologic conditions is generally in opposite directions (upward vs. downward). The two opposite flow mechanisms affect the pore size and fine particle content of streambeds. Thus it is very likely that the opposite flow conditions affect the streambed hydraulic conductivity. However, comparisons of the hydraulic conductivity (K) of streambeds for losing and gaining streams are not well documented. In this study, we examined the K distribution patterns of sediments below the channel surface or stream banks for the Platte River and its tributaries in Nebraska, USA. Two contrasting vertical distribution patterns were observed from the test sites. In gaining reaches, hydraulic conductivity of the streambed decreased with the depth of the sediment cores. In losing reaches, hydraulic conductivity increased with the depth of the sediment cores. These contrasting patterns in the two types of streams were mostly attributed to flow directions during stream water and groundwater exchanges. In losing reaches, downward movement of water brought fine particle into the otherwise coarse sediment matrix, partially silting the pores. For gaining reaches, upward flow winnowed fine particles, increasing the pore spacing in the top parts of streambeds, leading to higher hydraulic conductivity in shallower parts of streambeds. These flux directions can impact K values to depths of greater than 5 m. At each study site, in situ permeameter tests were conducted to measure the K values of the shallow streambed layer. Statistical analyses indicated that K values from the sites of losing reaches were significantly different from the K values from the sites of gaining reaches.

Deducing the spatial variability of exchange within a longitudinal channel water balance

AbstractDeveloping an appropriate data collection scheme to infer stream–subsurface interactions is not trivial due to the spatial and temporal variability of exchange flowpaths. Within the context of a case study, this paper presents the results from a number of common data collection techniques ranging from point to reach scales used in combination to better understand the spatial complexity of subsurface exchanges, infer the hydrologic conditions where individual influences of hyporheic and groundwater exchange components on stream water can be characterized, and determine where gaps in information arise. We start with a tracer‐based, longitudinal channel water balance to quantify hydrologic gains and losses at a sub‐reach scale nested within two consecutive reaches. Next, we look at groundwater and stream water surface levels, shallow streambed vertical head gradients, streambed and aquifer hydraulic conductivities, water chemistry, and vertical flux rates estimated from streambed temperatures to provide more spatially explicit information. As a result, a clearer spatial understanding of gains and losses was provided, but some limitations in interpreting results were identified even when combining information collected over various scales. Due to spatial variability of exchanges and areas of mixing, each technique frequently captured a combination of groundwater and hyporheic exchange components. Ultimately, this study provides information regarding technique selection, emphasizes that care must be taken when interpreting results, and identifies the need to apply or develop more advanced methods for understanding subsurface exchanges. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.