Groundwater Conservation Research Articles

Groundwater conservation, and recycling and reuse of textile wastewater in a denim industry of Bangladesh

Bangladesh holds the 2nd position after China in the global apparel market in terms of denim export. In the textile industry clusters of Bangladesh, the groundwater level is depleting at an alarming rate due to overconsumption and mismanagement. The present study evaluates the groundwater conservation potential of a denim facility in Manikganj District through an effluent recycling and reuse approach. In this study, 100% treated wastewater and 10% treated wastewater mixed with softwater were utilized in the wet processing plant to dye and wash sample denim products and investigated for their fabric quality using seven parameters. The test results followed the requirements given by the North American and European fashion brands that source denim products from Bangladesh. The feasibility assessment of groundwater conservation through its high (100%) and low (10%) recycling rates indicated that the studied facility can potentially save around 619,230 m3 and 61,923 m3 of groundwater in a year, respectively.

“You turn the tap on, the water's there, and you just think everything's fine”: a mixed methods approach to understanding public perceptions of groundwater management in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA

In Louisiana's Capital Area Groundwater Conservation District (CAGWCD), extensive groundwater withdrawals from the Southern Hills Aquifer System have begun to accelerate the infiltration of saltwater into the aquifer's freshwater sands. This accelerated saltwater intrusion has the potential to reduce the amount of groundwater available for public consumption and other industrial and agricultural uses throughout the region. In response to this threat, the Capital Area Ground Water Conservation Commission has begun development of a long-term strategic plan to achieve and maintain sustainable and resilient groundwater withdrawals from the aquifer system. The development of the strategic plan includes an assessment of public attitudes regarding groundwater and groundwater management in the CAGWCD. This paper presents the results of mixed methods public participatory research to evaluate current and historical views and attitudes around groundwater quality, quantity, and cost in the CAGWCD. The mixed methods approach used in this research employed a sequential explanatory design model consisting of two phases. The first phase involved the implementation of an internet-based survey, followed by a qualitative phase aimed at explaining and enhancing the quantitative results. The qualitative phase employed a combination of one-on-one interviews and focus groups. The research found that the primary governance obstacle that decision-makers may face in managing groundwater is a broad lack of public awareness of groundwater and groundwater issues in the CAGWCD. Despite the criticality of over-pumping and saltwater intrusion into the aquifer system, survey research and subsequent interviews and focus groups have shown that the public is largely unaware of these issues. This research also found a general lack of trust in both industry and government to manage groundwater issues and highlighted the need for groundwater management efforts to be led by unbiased, trusted institutions.

Assessing the feasibility of sprinkler irrigation schemes and their adaptation to future climate change in groundwater over-exploitation regions

Promoting appropriate water-saving irrigation is an important pathway to alleviate groundwater overexploitation in irrigated agriculture. Whether an alternative irrigation method is feasible relies on quantitative assessments of its impacts on crop yield and hydrological cycle, especially in the groundwater overdraft area that faces a dilemma between water scarcity and food security. Using a groundwater-module-improved SWAT (Soil & Water Assessment Tool) model, five GCMs (General Circulation Models) projections of CMIP6 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6), and a linear programming algorithm, sprinkler irrigation was simulated, evaluated, and optimized in a representative global groundwater mining location, the piedmont plain of the North China Plain. During the historical period (1993–2012), the results showed that, in general, sprinkler irrigation had advantages in benefiting crop transpiration of winter wheat and reducing percolation, hence improving water use efficiency with reference to traditional surface irrigation. Specifically, compared to traditional surface irrigation schemes, winter wheat yields increased by 12%− 14% with a 225 mm irrigation quota; they were stable with a 150 mm irrigation quota; but they decreased by 4% with a 75 mm irrigation quota. The shallow groundwater tables would decline at an average rate of 1.29 m/yr, 0.83 m/yr, and 0.35 m/yr, respectively, under sprinkler irrigation with 225 mm, 150 mm, and 75 mm irrigation quotas. Future climate changes (increased precipitation, air temperatures, and CO2 concentration) would bring effects of improving wheat yield by 6%− 7% and increasing groundwater vertical recharge by 58%− 122% in 2030–2049. The variations of predicted future shallow groundwater tables were − 0.37 m/yr, 0.01 m/yr, and 0.40 m/yr with the 225 mm, 150 mm, and 75 mm irrigation quotas, respectively, in the SSP2–4.5 scenario; and the corresponding results were − 0.45 m/yr, − 0.05 m/yr, and 0.34 m/yr in the SSP5–8.5 scenario. The optimization results showed that sprinkler irrigation could be implemented in approximately 50% of the study area to achieve shallow groundwater equilibrium and stable wheat production simultaneously in the near future. And the dominant sprinkler irrigation schedule after optimization was found to be scheme S3 (irrigation frequency for wheat was 5 times) with a limited irrigation quota of 150 mm. This study provides detailed data for planning sprinkler water-saving irrigation regimes and groundwater pumping strategies in China’s breadbasket, as well as a reference for global irrigated agriculture with over-drafted aquifers to balance groundwater conservation and grain production.

Developing ecological piety in pesantren: the Kyai’s cognition and the practice of living fiqh al-bī’ah in Banten

This study investigates the formation of ecological devotion within pesantren, led by kyai in the application of fiqh al-bī’ah. It delineates the developmental stages into three components aligned with Berger and Luckmann’s social construction theory: externalisation, objectification, and internalisation. Using qualitative methods and field studies, data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with three religious leaders from two eco-pesantren in Banten Province. Externalization is exemplified by the kyai’s teachings on humanity as caliphs, advocating against harming the Earth, emphasizing cleanliness as integral to faith, and prioritising thahhārah in fiqh. Objectification is seen in the prohibition of deforestation and embedded environmental preservation duties within the schools’ hidden curriculum. Internalisation reflects practical implementation aligned with established objectives, observed through growing pro-environmental consciousness, attitudes, and behaviours among school members, evolving progressively. This construction of ecological devotion resulted in tangible contributions to groundwater conservation and flood risk mitigation by the two schools. The findings highlight Islamic boarding schools’ potential to elevate environmental standards via fiqh al-bī’ah-rooted ecological wisdom. Collaborative efforts involving stakeholders, such as financial support and training programmes, are vital to enhancing the environmental management capacity, particularly in establishing impactful water management systems within these institutions.

EvatCrop: a novel hybrid quasi-fuzzy artificial neural network (ANN) model for estimation of reference evapotranspiration.

Reference evapotranspiration (ET0 ) is a significant parameter for efficient irrigation scheduling and groundwater conservation. Different machine learning models have been designed for ET0 estimation for specific combinations of available meteorological parameters. However, no single model has been suggested so far that can handle diverse combinations of available meteorological parameters for the estimation of ET0. This article suggests a novel architecture of an improved hybrid quasi-fuzzy artificial neural network (ANN) model (EvatCrop) for this purpose. EvatCrop yielded superior results when compared with the other three popular models, decision trees, artificial neural networks, and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems, irrespective of study locations and the combinations of input parameters. For real-field case studies, it was applied in the groundwater-stressed area of the Terai agro-climatic region of North Bengal, India, and trained and tested with the daily meteorological data available from the National Centres for Environmental Prediction from 2000 to 2014. The precision of the model was compared with the standard Penman-Monteith model (FAO56PM). Empirical results depicted that the model performances remarkably varied under different data-limited situations. When the complete set of input parameters was available, EvatCrop resulted in the best values of coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.988), degree of agreement (d = 0.997), root mean square error (RMSE = 0.183), and root mean square relative error (RMSRE = 0.034).

Impact of Agriculture Subsidy on Environment in Haryana State

Agriculture remains a cornerstone of Haryana's economy, bolstered by extensive government subsidies designed to increase productivity and food security. Despite the positive impact on crop yields, these subsidies have raised pressing environmental concerns, particularly related to groundwater depletion and the sustainability of cropping practices. This study provides an in-depth analysis of the effects of agriculture subsidies on cropping patterns, focusing on the increasing shift towards water-intensive crops such as rice and sugarcane, which are heavily subsidized and resource-demanding. The research examines the direct correlation between subsidy allocations and the selection of crops that exacerbate groundwater depletion, revealing the complex trade-offs between short-term economic gains and long-term environmental sustainability. Employing both quantitative data analysis and regression models, the study explores how subsidy-driven agricultural practices are influencing groundwater levels and contributing to ecological strain. Results indicate a significant negative impact of subsidies for water intensive crops on groundwater resources, posing challenges to Haryana's environmental stability. Additionally, the paper assesses farmers' perceptions of these subsidy programs, alongside their environmental awareness and adoption of sustainable practices. Findings suggest a positive correlation between farmers' understanding of subsidy benefits and their agricultural decisions, highlighting the need for policy reform that emphasizes sustainability. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on agricultural policy by offering actionable insights for policymakers. It advocates for a balanced subsidy approach that aligns with sustainable agricultural practices to minimize ecological harm while continuing to support Haryana's agricultural sector. The research underscores the urgency for policy interventions that not only promote economic productivity but also prioritize groundwater conservation and environmental health.

Validation of a sensor-system for real-time measurement of mineralized nitrogen in soils

When reducing the negative impact of agriculture on the environment, one major approach is to substantially decrease the nitrate contamination of the groundwater originating from mineral and organic fertilization. However, efficient plant production relies on sufficient nutrient supply. Finding the balance between appropriate plant nutrition and ground water conservation is a challenge. Appropriate nitrogen fertilization relies on the measurement of mineralized nitrogen (Nmin) - the total amount of nitrate and ammonium - in the soil. Taking soil samples with an auger and subsequent chemical analyses in a laboratory is state of the art. However, this process is time-consuming and often time-delayed. The Stenon FarmLab, a sensor spade, is a new device which claims to measure soil Nmin and other soil parameters in real-time with spectral methods. The aim of this study was to validate the Nmin measurements of the Stenon FarmLab with the common laboratory method. The authors conducted a series of 20 measurements consisting of a varying number of individual values per measurement. In total, 211 individual values on 15 different field sites in three regions in Bavaria, Germany were analyzed. Reference samples for laboratory analysis were taken simultaneously with a sampling auger. Only 181 of the 211 individual values were considered in the evaluation as Nmin contents of less than 42 kg N ha−1 and greater than 189 kg N ha−1 exceeded FarmLab's measurement range. The results showed that the Stenon FarmLab overestimated Nmin in 75 % of the cases in comparison to the laboratory analysis. On average, the mean values of the sampled sites differed by 38 kg N ha−1 showing a 69 % mean deviation from the laboratory. The overall coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.3 for individual measurements and 0.66 for the mean values of a site. In conclusion, the Stenon FarmLab is a good approach for a more time-saving method regarding relative differences within or between fields. However, absolute values measured with the Stenon FarmLab, which are required for demand-driven fertilization, are not accurate enough: the system needs to be further improved to match reference methods.

Groundwater is a hidden global keystone ecosystem.

Groundwater is a vital ecosystem of the global water cycle, hosting unique biodiversity and providing essential services to societies. Despite being the largest unfrozen freshwater resource, in a period of depletion by extraction and pollution, groundwater environments have been repeatedly overlooked in global biodiversity conservation agendas. Disregarding the importance of groundwater as an ecosystem ignores its critical role in preserving surface biomes. To foster timely global conservation of groundwater, we propose elevating the concept of keystone species into the realm of ecosystems, claiming groundwater as a keystone ecosystem that influences the integrity of many dependent ecosystems. Our global analysis shows that over half of land surface areas (52.6%) has a medium-to-high interaction with groundwater, reaching up to 74.9% when deserts and high mountains are excluded. We postulate that the intrinsic transboundary features of groundwater are critical for shifting perspectives towards more holistic approaches in aquatic ecology and beyond. Furthermore, we propose eight key themes to develop a science-policy integrated groundwater conservation agenda. Given ecosystems above and below the ground intersect at many levels, considering groundwater as an essential component of planetary health is pivotal to reduce biodiversity loss and buffer against climate change.

Integrated Multi-Model Approach for Assessing Groundwater Vulnerability in Rajasthan’s Semi-Arid Zone: Incorporating DRASTIC and SINTACS Variants

Groundwater pollution in Rajasthan, India, poses significant challenges due to the region’s heavy reliance on this resource for drinking and irrigation. Given the increasing water scarcity and overexploitation, this study assesses the susceptibility of groundwater pollution in this semi-arid area. We applied and compared vulnerability mapping methods, DRASTIC and SINTACS, and their modified versions. These methodologies considered various geological and environmental factors such as depth-to-water table, recharge, aquifer conductivity, soil, and topography. The modified versions also integrated land use and temperature data for enhanced sensitivity. Validation was achieved by comparing contaminant data from the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), India, focusing on primary contaminants such as fluoride, nitrate, chloride, and total dissolved solids (TDS). The results strongly align with the modified methodologies and observed groundwater ion values. Specifically, more than half of the 300 sample points analyzed indicated TDS values exceeding the permissible 300 ppm limit, with over 80 points surpassing 500 ppm. The vulnerability was classified into the following five categories: very low; low; medium; high; and very high. Notably, 30.53% of the area displayed “very high” vulnerability under the modified DRASTIC model. Districts like Jalore, Pali, Sirohi, and Jodhpur emerged as highly vulnerable zones, while areas within Udaipur, Kota, and Jaipur, among others, showed very high vulnerability. This research highlights the importance of conducting groundwater vulnerability assessments, especially for regions grappling with water scarcity like Rajasthan. The findings from this research are pivotal in guiding sustainable ground water resource management, as well as advocating continual monitoring and effective groundwater conservation strategies in the region.

Spatial–Temporal Changes in Shallow Groundwater Quality with Human Health Risk Assessment in the Luxi Plain (China)

Groundwater is an essential water source for drinking, domestic, irrigation and industrial production in Luxi Plain, Shandong Province, China. Understanding the spatial–temporal changes in groundwater quality and its influencing factors in the region were required for better utilization of groundwater resources and efficient design of groundwater management strategies. In this study, the hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater in the study area were analyzed, and significant evolution was found from 2018 to 2020 due to silicate and carbonate weathering, evaporation and human activities. Moreover, the entropy water quality index (EWQI) was used to assess groundwater quality from 2018 to 2020. The EWQI values in 2018–2020 were 129.5, 90.5 and 94.0, respectively, and 31.7% of the groundwater in 2019 and 20.0% in 2020 can be used directly for drinking in the study area; others can be used for domestic water or irrigation. The potable groundwater, with an EWQI value of <50 (ranked as class Ⅰ or Ⅱ water quality), was mainly distributed in the west and southeast of the study area. The potential health risk due to oral intake and dermal intake was further assessed based on the human health risk assessment (HHRA) model. The results showed that, 37.3%, 6.7% and 3.3% of the groundwater samples for adults exceeded the acceptable limit for non-carcinogenic risk of 1.0 in 2018–2020, while for children, they were 88.2%, 30.0% and 56.7%, respectively. The high non-carcinogenic risks virtually all occurred in the counties or districts with higher agricultural or economic values. This work may provide useful information for local groundwater conservation and management and help to ensure a sustainable and healthy water supply for drinking, domestic and agricultural needs.

Quantification and visualization of groundwater contamination prevention regionalization based on analytic hierarchy process method (AHP) in Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area, South China

The groundwater contamination assessment and prevention regionalization are an important part of groundwater investigation, which is of great significance to groundwater environmental management and contamination control. Although the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GHM Greater Bay Area) has faced significant groundwater contamination since 2020, there's been no investigation into its vulnerability zonation. In this paper, groundwater in a typical area of south China was taken as the research object. We analyzed groundwater contamination risk by considering both the groundwater vulnerability and the load from contamination sources. Using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method, we superposed the groundwater risk, function value and contamination status, and realized the quantification and visualization of groundwater contamination prevention regionalization. Based on the DRASTIC model, the zones of low, moderate, high, and very high vulnerability are respectively 14.2 %, 24.28 %, 37.67 %, and 20.45 % of the study area. Results show that the groundwater vulnerability grade in the area is III-IV, which means it is easy to be polluted. The functional value of groundwater in the south-central part of the region is relatively high. Most of the areas with high prevention and control levels are located in plain areas and the Piedmont plain area with an area of 460 km2. The secondary control levels (key protection area) are mainly located in the middle, southwest, and northeast of the plain, with an area of 6944 square kilometers. Consequently, the ideas and contamination prevention zone maps might provide a scientific foundation for long-term planning and management and groundwater conservation in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area and peripheral zones.

Geoconservation of Groundwater in the Getourism Area of Olele Village for the Development of the Tomini Bay Geopark

Geoconservation is an important effort in preserving geological diversity. Geoparks act as a link to encourage geoconservation. This research aims to evaluate the geology, geosite potential and groundwater availability in Olele Village, Gorontalo. This research aims to determine geological conditions, geosite potential, groundwater availability and groundwater conservation measures. The methods of literature survey, field survey, field data collection and ArcGis 10.8 data analysis were used. Stratigraphy shows the sequence of Reef Limestone (Ql), Pinogu Volcanic Rock (TQpv), Bone Diorite (Tmb), and Bilungala Volcanic Rock (Tmbv). Geomorphology includes reef terrace plains, alluvial plains, pyroclastic flow hills, and lava flows. Lithological contacts between reef limestone and pyroclastic breccia mark the Olele Geosite. Water quality is influenced by the level of rock passability and rainfall. Olele Village has good groundwater potential with a groundwater table depth of 1-8 meters. Groundwater conservation measures involve monitoring, public education, water use management, sustainable agriculture, wetland rehabilitation, development of alternative infrastructure, and mitigation of tourism impacts. Thus, this research emphasizes the need for sustainable strategies for the conservation of geological and groundwater resources in this area.

Can an Incentivized Command-and-Control Approach Improve Groundwater Management? An Analysis of Indian Punjab

The Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act 2009 is a legislative measure introduced to address the critical issue of groundwater depletion in Punjab, India. This research examines the implications of this Act and the rising groundwater scarcity in Punjab. Using qualitative research methods, including GIS mapping, it evaluates the postimplementation impact of the Act on groundwater conservation and water availability and assesses its effectiveness in achieving its objectives. This study reveals that the government’s policies favoring wheat and rice have significantly contributed to the expansion of these crops, resulting in imbalanced agricultural practices. While the overall groundwater development in Punjab decreased from 170% in 2009 to 165% in 2017, a district-wise analysis reveals that the fall in the groundwater exploitation level in seven districts outperforms the rise in the exploitation level in the other thirteen districts of the state, showing overall minor or no improvement. This study proposes a multifaceted approach combining command-and-control measures with self-regulation incentives. It highlights the potential of incentivizing farmers to adopt sustainable practices, diversify crops, and implement water-efficient technologies. This paper also suggests the importance of involving stakeholders and the community in groundwater management, emphasizing the need for participatory approaches to ensure the long-term sustainability of water resources. While this study provides valuable insights, it is essential to acknowledge that its scope is limited to a qualitative assessment, and there may be challenges in generalizing the findings to all regions facing groundwater depletion.

Geospatial Modeling of Groundwater Potential Using Multi-criteria Decision Analysis in Humid Subtropical Region, India

Abstract This study uses geospatial modeling and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) to assess the Groundwater Potential Zones (GPZs) in Cachar District, India. Twelve influencing factors, namely Geomorphology, geology, soil type, Land Use Land Cover (LULC), rainfall, slope, drainage density, lineament density, elevation, aspect, Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI), and Topographic Wetness Index (TWI), are considered, and thematic maps are prepared in Geographical Information System (GIS) platform. To measure the weightages of these factors, Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) and Best Worst Method (BWM) are the MCDA techniques used. The GPZs are generated using weights and reclassified into low, medium, and high zones. The major portion of the region is classified as the medium potential zone, with 64.25% and 63.96% of the total area using AHP and BWM, respectively. The validation with groundwater data for the two GPZ maps reveals that 10 out of 12 locations have been predicted accurately. BWM, with a lesser comparison matrix, performed as efficiently as AHP and has proven to be a better MCDA technique in spatial modeling GPZ for sustainable groundwater conservation.

Simple Technology of Material Physics of Groundwater Conservation in Dealing with Climate Change in Disaster Areas of North Sumatra

Water is a natural resource with a very important function for human life and advancing general welfare, so water is the basic capital and the main development factor. After the eruption in the Mount Sinabung area, the supply of healthy water was inadequate both in quantity and quality, even though the Karo Regency government made efforts to provide this healthy water. For this reason, appropriate technology is needed in post-eruption water treatment in Mount Sinabung to become healthy water and be used by the local community. This research aims to provide information about Groundwater Conservation Technology in Facing Climate Change in the Disaster Areas of North Sumatra. The method used is quantitative with a purposive sampling technique by selecting 6 wells from 348 wells around Mount Sinabung. Chemical parameters for sampling each - each 1 liter of water to be put in bottles previously cleaned and rinsed with distilled water first, then dried. Laboratory Tests then examined them. There is a simple technology in the form of a water filter made from a mixture of sand, activated carbon, and dried starfruit leaves, which can neutralize contamination of substances such as sulfur and others in the water to obtain healthy water suitable for people in the disaster area.

Are we saving water? Simple methods for assessing the effectiveness of groundwater conservation measures

Substantial storage reductions by irrigation pumping in many of the world’s major aquifers jeopardize future food production. As a result, new conservation measures are being utilized to reduce pumping and extend aquifer lifespans. The key question is how effective are these practices in attaining true water conservation (i.e., water use reduction) for a given area? Relationships between pumping and precipitation help provide an answer, as precipitation explains most of the variation in annual irrigation water use for aquifers in semi-arid to sub-humid climates when surface water supplies are limited. Our objective is to utilize correlations between radar precipitation and irrigation groundwater use at a range of spatial scales to assess the effectiveness of conservation approaches in the High Plains aquifer in the central USA. Linear regressions between pumping and precipitation for a conservation area established in 2013 in northwest Kansas indicate that water use and water use per irrigated area were over 27 % less and 25 % less, respectively, during 2013–2021 compared to the same climatic conditions during 2005–2012. Similar regressions found over a 38 % reduction and 23 % reduction in irrigation water use and use per irrigated area, respectively, during 2018–2021 compared to the same conditions during 2005–2017 in a west-central Kansas county with conservation areas. A decrease in irrigated area accounted for most of the difference between these reductions. Higher R2 values after conservation area establishment imply that irrigation tracks precipitation better due to use of soil moisture sensors and other measures as part of increased irrigation efficiency and enhanced water management. The precipitation and water use relationships, which are statistically significant for a wide range of spatial scales, have great potential for assessing the effectiveness of conservation practices in areas with high-quality water use and precipitation data.

Urban growth and loss of green spaces in the metropolitan areas of São Paulo and Mexico City: effects of land-cover changes on climate and water flow regulation

Urban green spaces provide ecosystem services that directly or indirectly benefit people, however, urban growth (especially in developing countries) generates the loss of these green areas and consequently of their ecosystem services. This paper aims to present the effects of land use and land cover changes in the last 30 years on two basic urban ecosystem services, water flow regulation and local and regional climate in two of main Latin American megacities (São Paulo and Mexico City). The study focuses on urban green spaces because they reduce the urban heat island effects, improve air quality, create habitats for biodiversity conservation, provide cultural services, and contribute to flooding prevention and groundwater conservation. A spatial analysis with the aid of geographic information systems was performed to assess (i) the urbanization process of the Metropolitan Areas of both cities over time; (ii) how this process generated changes in the land cover in both metropolises, and (iii) how these changes caused environmental negative impacts on ecosystem services. The loss of green areas as a consequence of urban expansion in the Metropolitan Areas of São Paulo and Mexico City changed the spatial distribution of urban heat island and increased the surface runoff, generating floods during the rainy periods. Our results suggest the urgent need for implementation of ecosystem-based spatial planning and ecological restoration of urban green areas in both studied cities to prevent further losses in ecosystem services and to improve the quality of life of urban inhabitants.

Impact of altered groundwater depth on soil microbial diversity, network complexity and multifunctionality.

Understanding the effects of groundwater depth on soil microbiota and multiple soil functions is essential for ecological restoration and the implementation of groundwater conservation. The current impact of increased groundwater levels induced by drought on soil microbiota and multifunctionality remains ambiguous, which impedes our understanding of the sustainability of water-scarce ecosystems that heavily rely on groundwater resources. This study investigated the impacts of altered groundwater depths on soil microbiota and multifunctionality in a semi-arid region. Three groundwater depth levels were studied, with different soil quality and soil moisture at each level. The deep groundwater treatment had negative impacts on diversity, network complexity of microbiota, and the relationships among microbial phylum unites. Increasing groundwater depth also changed composition of soil microbiota, reducing the relative abundance of dominant phyla including Proteobacteria and Ascomycota. Increasing groundwater depth led to changes in microbial community characteristics, which are strongly related to alterations in soil multifunctionality. Overall, our results suggest that groundwater depth had a strongly effect on soil microbiota and functionality.

The Environment's Carrying Capacity Status Due To the Use of Groundwater by the Community

The enhancement of the shift in settlement areas in the suburbs of Jakarta is getting out of control. This phenomenon of urban sprawl development has changed the function of open land into built-up land for the construction of new housing infrastructure. This urban sprawl phenomenon will continue along with the escalating number of inhabitants. In addition, the development of residential areas in the outskirts of Jakarta, as happened in the research location in South Jakarta, has social and environmental impacts caused by the high use of groundwater by the community and makes residential areas unsustainable. This paper aims to assess the status of the environment's carrying capacity related to the occurrence of unsustainable settlements and to offer efforts to implement groundwater conservation in residential areas. This study develops a dynamic system model using a feedback approach to obtain the surroundings' carrying capacity status. The feedback approach uses three environmental subsystem models to address sustainable ecological problems: the social-environmental subsystem, the built environment subsystem, and the natural environment subsystem. The variables affecting the simulation system are the community's water needs, land conversion, and groundwater availability. The study's findings indicate that when it begins in 2070, the status of the environmental carrying capacity at the research location will be experiencing a severe water deficit, resulting in groundwater scarcity. Based on the scenario results, several policies can have a positive influence on increasing the status of environmental carrying capacity so that they can assist decision-makers in implementing groundwater conservation policies.

City‐Level Virtual Groundwater Flows in Northern China and the Effect of Agricultural Relocation on Alleviating Groundwater Scarcity

AbstractNorth China faces severe groundwater overdraft because of unsustainable groundwater use. However, consumers of local groundwater have rarely been precisely delineated. As such, identifying external consumers of groundwater‐intensive products may promote targeted policies from the consumption side, especially for the most water‐scarce Beijing‐Tianjin‐Hebei (BTH) metropolitan area, which has important links to food security and groundwater overdraft across North China. In this study, we revealed the prefecture city‐level virtual groundwater flows in the BTH region for, to our knowledge, the first time by compiling a nested multiregional input‐output table with 13 BTH cities and 28 Chinese provinces outside BTH in 2012. Our results showed that >50% of groundwater use in BTH cities was driven by agricultural supply for outside provinces, significantly exceeding the local demand of 38.8%. In addition, we simulated different scenarios that focused on redistributing the original agricultural production of the BTH region to other northern provinces. We found that these redistribution strategies would lead to 13%–67% groundwater savings relative to total groundwater use in the BTH region in 2012. Moreover, our results also indicated that BTH cities would save groundwater under higher stress in exchange for increased groundwater use in provinces under lower stress. These findings can be utilized to optimize the agricultural distribution and groundwater conservation policies in other regions or countries facing agriculture‐induced groundwater overdraft issues.