Ground Soybean Research Articles

Fontes suplementares de proteína para novilhos mestiços em recria em pastagens de capim-braquiária no período das águas: desempenho produtivo e econômico

Avaliou-se o desempenho de novilhos mestiços Holandês-Zebu em fase de recria recebendo suplementação com fontes de proteína em uma área de pastagem de Brachiaria brizantha, cv. Marandu, durante o período das águas. A área foi dividida em piquetes de 1,5 ha, com disponibilidade média de matéria seca e matéria seca potencialmente digestível de 7,46 e 4,50 t/ha, respectivamente. Utilizaram-se 25 novilhos mestiços com peso e idade iniciais médios de 229 kg e 12 meses, distribuídos em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com cinco fontes de proteína e cinco repetições. As fontes de proteína testadas foram mistura mineral - grupo controle (60 g/animal); farelo de soja + farelo de algodão + mistura mineral (510 g/animal); farelo de soja + mistura mineral (460 g/animal); grão de soja triturado e mistura mineral (560 g/animal); grão de soja inteiro e mistura mineral (560 g/animal). Embora sem significância estatística, os animais que receberam suplemento múltiplo apresentaram ganho médio diário de 211 g/animal (23,78%) a mais que aqueles que receberam somente mistura mineral. O uso do suplemento múltiplo à base de farelo de soja e farelo de algodão proporcionou aumento numérico de 247 g/animal em relação à mistura mineral. A suplementação com as fontes de proteína pode proporcionar ganhos adicionais durante o período das águas. A suplementação múltipla proporcionou retorno econômico, indiferentemente da fonte de proteína utilizada.

Cost-cutting of nitrogen source for economical production of cellulolytic enzymes by Trichoderma inhamatum KSJ1

For saccharifying food wastes, cellulolytic enzymes were produced using Trichoderma inhamatum KSJ1 in modified Mandel’s medium. In a previous study, 0.1% bacto peptone in Mandel’s medium was established as the best organic nitrogen source for the production of cellulolytic enzymes using strain KSJ1. However, economically, peptone was too expensive. Therefore, soybean, yeast and Chunggookjang (fermented soybean paste) were substituted for peptone in this research. Also, yeast or ground soybean hydrolyzed by sulfuric acid or from a culture broth of Bacillus alcalophilus, a strain producing protease, was added to the medium as the nitrogen source to the production of cellulolytic enzyme. In the cultivation using 0.5% yeast hydrolyzed with a culture solution of B. alcalophilus as the nitrogen source, the activities of FPase and amylase were 0.20 and 2.17 U/mL in a 100 mL flask, compared to 0.35 and 1.24 U/mL with the 0.1% peptone as control, respectively. In a 10 L jar fermenter, the activities of FPase and amylase were improved to 0.40 and 4.82 U/mL in the cultivation, respectively, using 0.5% yeast hydrolyzed with the culture broth, compared with 0.38 and 3.79 U/mL, respectively, for the 0.1% peptone as control. Therefore, hydrolyzed yeast was established as an available nitrogen source for the industrial scale production of cellulolytic enzymes by strain KSJ1, resulting in a 52.3% cost reduction in the production of cellulolytic enzyme by substitution of the expensive nitrogen sources.

Production of Agaricus bisporus on substrates pre-colonized by Scytalidium thermophilum and supplemented at casing with protein-rich supplements

The objective of this study was to evaluate performance of Agaricus bisporus ( Ab) on substrates pre-colonized by Scytalidium thermophilum ( St), a thermophilic fungus known to enhance yields of Ab and increase selectivity of the substrate. The radial extension rate (RER) of the mycelium of three strains of St and their influence on the growth of a brown strain of Ab were evaluated. We also determined the time required for colonization of pangola grass by St in a compost pile and the influence of three protein-rich supplements on yield of Ab on pangola grass ( Digitaria decumbens) colonized by St. RER of St ranged from 10.1 mm/d on grass to 18.9 mm/d on potato dextrose yeast extract agar, with significant differences among substrates and among strains. Ab grew faster on substrate colonized for 1, 2, or 3 days by St (RER of 3.31, 3.29, 3.23 mm/d, respectively) compared to non-colonized substrate (1.85 mm/d). Ab was cultivated on substrate samples selected daily from the St-inoculated pile, with biological efficiencies (BE) ranging from 4% (day 0) to 73.9% (day 2). Protein-rich supplements (soybean, black beans and cowpeas) added at casing significantly stimulated mushroom yield on St-colonized substrate compared to the non-supplemented control. BE varied from 26.1% on substrate non-supplemented to 73.1% on compost supplemented with ground soybean. There were no significant differences in mushroom yield observed among supplements evaluated.

DEGRADABILIDADE IN SITU DA MATÉRIA SECA E DA FRAÇÃO FIBROSA DO BAGAÇO DE CANA-DE-AÇÚCAR TRATADO COM URÉIA

The experiment was conducted to evaluate the in situ degradability of dry matter (iDMD), neutral detergent fiber (iNDFD), acid detergent fiber (iADFD) and hemicel-lulosis of sugar cane bagasse submitted to ammoniation with urea. The treatments consisted of four urea levels (0%, 2.5%, 5.0% and 7.5% on dry matter – DM basis) added to the sugar cane bagasse and addition of 1.2% (DM basis) of ground soybean as urease source. Samples of 3 g of the bagasses were incubated in the rumen of three steers during periods of 0, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. The urea addiction to sugar cane bagasse provided increase not only on the iDMD, but also in degradability of cell wall con-tents. The degradability increased of 73.6, 61.3, 45.6 and 65.7% for DM, NDF, ADF and hemicellulosis, respective-ly, at the longer incubation time (96 hours). The iDMD, iNDFD, iADFD and in situ hemicellusosis degradability of sugar cane bagasse were improved by urea treatment. KEY-WORDS: Ammoniation, by product, dry matter, cellular wall.

The influence of spawn type and strain on yield, size and mushroom solids content of Agaricus bisporus produced on non-composted and spent mushroom compost

Two crops of Agaricus bisporus (J. Lange) Imbach were grown on mixtures of non-composted substrate (NCS)/spent mushroom compost (SMC) or pasteurized Phase II compost (control). NCS consisted of oak sawdust (28% oven dry wt), millet (29%), rye (8%), peat (8%), ground alfalfa (4%), ground soybean (4%), wheat bran (9%), and CaCO 3 (10%). Substrates included 25/75 NCS/SMC, 50/50 NCS/SMC, and 75/25 NCS/SMC, NCS and Phase II compost. Spawn types and strains were evaluated for their effects on yield, biological efficiency (BE), size and mushroom solids content. Spawn types included millet, casing inoculum (CI), 50/50 CI/millet, or NCS while mushroom strains were of the brown or hybrid off-white variety (U 1 type). Mushroom yields and BEs on substrate mixtures of NCS and SMC were comparable to non-supplemented Phase II compost. The highest yield (12.8 kg/m 2) and BE (70.9%) were produced on a substrate mixture of 50/50 NCS/SMC and spawn type NCS. Mushroom solids content (7.1%) was highest from the brown strain produced on a 50/50 mixture of NCS/SMC.

Yield, size, and mushroom solids content of Agaricus bisporus produced on non-composted substrate and spent mushroom compost

Three crops of Agaricus bisporus were grown on non-composted substrate (NCS), spent mushroom compost (SMC), a 50/50 mixture of NSC/SMC, or pasteurized Phase II compost. NCS consisted of oak sawdust (28% oven dry wt), millet (29%), rye (8%), peat (8%), ground alfalfa (4%), ground soybean (4%), wheat bran (9%) and CaCO3 (10%). Substrates were non-supplemented or supplemented with Target® (a commercial delayed release nutrient for mushroom culture) or soybean meal at spawning or casing, or with Micromax® (a mixture of nine micronutrients) at spawning. Mushroom yield (27.2 kg/m2) was greatest on a 50/50 mixture of NCS/SMC supplemented with 10% (dry wt) Target® at casing. The same substrate supplemented with Target® at spawning yielded 20.1 kg/m2. By comparison, mushroom yield on Phase II compost supplemented at casing or at spawning with Target® was 21.6 kg/m2 and 20.6 kg/m2, respectively. On NCS amended with 0.74% or 0.9% Micromax® at spawning, yields increased by 51.8% (12.9 kg/m2) and 71.8% (14.6 kg/m2), respectively, over non-amended NCS (8.5 kg/m2). Conversely, mushroom yields were not affected when Micromax® was added to a 50/50 mixture of NCS/SMC. Mushroom solids content was higher in mushrooms harvested from NCS amended with 0.74% Micromax® (9.6%) compared to non-amended NCS (8.3%).

Óleo de soja e própolis na alimentação de cabras leiteiras: consumo de matéria seca e de nutrientes e parâmetros de fermentação ruminal

Objetivou-se avaliar a inclusão de níveis crescentes de óleo de soja (0; 1,5; 3,0; 4,5; 6,0; e 7,5% da MS), extrato etanólico de própolis (0; 1,0; 2,0; 4,0; 8,0 e 12,0 mL/animal/dia, 50% p/v de própolis moída em solução alcoólica a 70% em água) e própolis bruta moída (0; 0,5; 1,0; 2,0; 4,0 e 6,0 g/animal/dia) na alimentação de cabras leiteiras. Avaliaram-se o consumo de MS e de nutrientes e alguns parâmetros de fermentação ruminal, como pH, amônia (NH3), ácidos graxos voláteis (AGV) e atividade específica de produção de amônia (AEPA) pela microbiota ruminal. Foram utilizadas seis cabras Alpinas fistuladas no rúmen, em seis períodos experimentais. As dietas foram compostas de 67% de silagem de milho e 33% de concentrado à base de fubá de milho e farelo de soja. Os animais foram submetidos ao tratamento controle e, em seguida, a cinco níveis crescentes de óleo de soja, extrato etanólico de própolis e própolis bruta moída utilizando-se dois animais para cada produto testado, em seis períodos experimentais. Não houve efeito de níveis de óleo de soja, extrato etanólico de própolis e própolis bruta moída sobre o consumo de MS e de nutrientes e sobre os parâmetros ruminais estudados. Sugere-se, no entanto, a realização de mais pesquisas com a adição de própolis na alimentação de ruminantes, pois existem efeitos antimicrobianos comprovados in vitro e evidências de que seu fornecimento a esses animais reduz a relação acetato:propionato e a concentração de butirato no rúmen.

Effects of Dietary Starch and Sucrose on Tissue Responsiveness and Sensitivity to Insulin in Goats Fed a High-concentrate Diet

A glucose clamp technique was used to compare dietary starch (ST), starch plus sucrose (ST+SU) and sucrose (SU) with regard to the effect on tissue responsiveness and sensitivity to insulin in intact adult male goats. The goats were fed diets containing 1.2 times of ME and CP for maintenance requirements twice daily for 21 d. Of the energy intake, 30% was offered with ST, ST+SU or SU for the respective diets, and 70% as alfalfa hay, ground corn and ground soybean meal at the respective weight ratio of 1, 1, and 0.3 for all diets. Tissue responsiveness and sensitivity to insulin were evaluated using a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp technique with four levels of insulin infusion beyond 13 h after feeding. The concentrations of plasma metabolites and insulin were also determined at 3, 6 and 13 h after feeding to evaluate the effects of different carbohydrates on metabolic states in the body. Plasma glucose concentration was higher (p = 0.01) for SU diet than for ST and ST+SU diets. Increasing SU intake decreased (p<0.01) plasma acetate concentration across the time. At 3 h but not 6 and 13 h after feeding, high lactate (p = 0.01), and non-significant high propionate (p = 0.14) and low urea nitrogen (p = 0.19) concentrations were observed in plasma on SU compared with ST and ST+SU diets. Plasma insulin concentration was not different (p = 0.44) between ST and SU fed animals. In the glucose clamp experiment, considering the effects on the maximal glucose infusion rate (tissue responsiveness to insulin, p = 0.54) and the plasma insulin concentration at half-maximal glucose infusion rate (insulin sensitivity, p = 0.54), SU was not different from ST. It is concluded that SU may not be greatly different from ST with regard to the effect on tissue responsiveness and sensitivity to insulin in adult goats when fed twice daily as part of a high-concentrate diet. The possible greater effects of SU on plasma metabolites concentrations at 3 h than at 6 and 13 h after feeding suggest that a lack of persistency of SU effects during the postfeeding period may be associated with the poor response to SU in insulin action.

Evaluation of soybean seed protein extraction focusing on metalloprotein analysis

Two methods of protein extraction for soybean seeds were evaluated in terms of preservation of the metal ions bound to proteins after the extraction and separation procedures. The proteins were firstly separated according to their molar masses by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Then, the protein bands were mapped by synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence in order to establish which metal ions were present in each one. Finally, some mapped protein bands were decomposed by microwave-assisted combustion and Ca, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, and Zn were quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry or inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. The extraction methods studied were Method A (based on the treatment of ground soybean seeds with hexane and their extraction with Tris–HCl and β-mercaptoethanol) and Method B (based on the treatment of ground soybean seeds with petroleum ether and their extraction with Tris–HCl, dithiothreitol, phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride, sodium dodecyl sulfate and potassium chloride). The best method was Method B, in which a 78% higher extraction efficiency was obtained when compared to Method A. Additionally, the metal-protein interactions were more appropriately preserved when Method B was applied, where the most affected ions were those that are bound weakly to proteins, such as Ca, K, and Mg.

Yield, size and bacterial blotch resistance of Pleurotus eryngii grown on cottonseed hulls/oak sawdust supplemented with manganese, copper and whole ground soybean

Experiments were performed to determine effects of supplementation of cottonseed hull/sawdust substrate with Mn, Cu, and ground soybean on yield, mushroom size, and bacterial blotch resistance of two commercial strains of Pleurotus eryngii. A basal formulation (d.w.) of cottonseed hulls (62%), aged red oak sawdust (27%), whole ground soybean (6%), corn distiller’s waste (4%) and calcium sulfate (1%) was supplemented to 50, 150 or 250 μg/g Mn or Cu and to 4%, 8% and 12% whole ground soybean. The cottonseed hulls content in the basal substrate was adjusted to compensate for the addition of ground soybean. Formulated substrates were mixed, placed in 1050 ml bottles, and sterilized at 121 °C for 90 min. Mushroom yields were significantly higher from substrates containing Mn at 50 μg/g and soybean at 8% and 12% supplementation compared to the basal substrate. As the level of soybean addition to substrate increased, yield also increased. The addition of Mn at levels of 150 and 250 μg/g significantly enhanced yield as well, although less than did the 50 μg/g treatment. To assess the influence of mushroom strain and substrate composition on blotch disease severity, pilei of P. eryngii were inoculated with Pseudomonas tolaasii. Strain WC888 was more resistant to disease than WC846. Disease severity was greater when substrates were amended with Cu to 150 or 250 μg/g. There was a significant difference in inherent levels of Cu in the basidiomata of different strains, but P. eryngii did not accumulate Cu and disease severity was not correlated with Cu content of the basidiomata.

Consumo e digestibilidade aparente de rações com diferentes proporções de feno de capim Coastcross (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.) e soja crua moída e comportamento alimentar de ovinos

The aims of this experiment were to determine the average daily intake (ADI) and the apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of rations containing two levels of coastcross hay and ground soybean grain, as well as, to study the behavior of sheep fed on these rations. Ten wethers averaging 40.0 kg of live weight were allocated in feeding trial cages for this experiment. A completely randomized design with two treatments (T1= 80% coastcross hay + 20% soybean grain and T2= 60% coast cross hay + 40% soybean grain) and five replicates, were used. The treatments were evaluated under two feeding systems (voluntary and restrict). There were two experimental periods of seven days with fifteen days of previous adaptation each. The animals were fed twice a day with rations containing half of the estimated daily intake. The behaviours studied were times spent eating, ruminating and resting in a five minutes interval observation during twelve hours. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) between treatments for nutrients ADI but for crude protein and ether extract (EE). The ADC for dry matter (DM), fiber (F) and total carbohydrates (TC) were significantly greater (P

Desempenho de novilhos Nelore alimentados com casca de soja ou farelo de gérmen de milho em substituição parcial ao milho moído

Objetivou-se neste trabalho estudar a substituição parcial (70%) do milho moído pela casca de soja ou pelo farelo de gérmen de milho em dietas contendo farelo de girassol e uréia (fontes nitrogenadas) e silagem de milho (volumoso) para novilhos Nelore em confinamento. Avaliaram-se o consumo, o ganho de peso, a conversão alimentar e o rendimento de carcaça de 21 animais (25 meses de idade e peso inicial de 343 kg) alimentados com as dietas-teste, fornecidas na proporção 60:40 volumoso:concentrado. O período de avaliação do consumo e do ganho de peso foi de 97 dias. Os consumos de MS (10,78; 9,73 e 10,62 kg/dia), PB (1,40; 1,22 e 1,41 kg/dia) e FDN (3,41; 3,89 e 3,60 kg/dia) não foram influenciados pelas dietas com milho moído, casca de soja e farelo de gérmen de milho, respectivamente. O consumo de FDA (0,56; 0,71 e 0,55% PV) apresentou efeito significativo, observando-se maior valor quando a casca de soja substituiu 70% do milho moído. O ganho de peso não foi influenciado pelas dietas, registrando-se valores de 1,35; 1,29 e 1,32 kg/dia para as dietas contendo milho moído, casca de soja e farelo de gérmen de milho, respectivamente. Não houve efeito, também, sobre a conversão alimentar (7,88 kg de MS ingerida/kg ganho), a eficiência alimentar (0,12 kg ganho/kg MS ingerida) e o rendimento de carcaça (54,52%). A substituição parcial do milho moído pela casca de soja e pelo farelo de gérmen de milho em dietas para novilhos em confinamento não afeta o desempenho e o rendimento de carcaça.

Genomic Regions Associated with Amino Acid Composition in Soybean

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is the single largest source of protein in animal feed. However, few studies have been conducted to evaluate genomic regions controlling amino acid composition in soybean. It is important to study the genetics of amino acid composition to achieve improvements through breeding. The objectives of this study were to determine the ratios between essential to non-essential (E:NE) and essential to total (E:T) amino acids, and to identify genomic regions controlling essential and non-essential amino acid composition in soybean seed. To achieve these objectives, 101 F6-derived recombinant inbred lines (RIL) developed from a cross of N87-984-16 × TN93-99 were used. Ground soybean seed samples were analyzed for amino acids using a near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) instrument. A significant (p < 0.01) difference among the RIL was found for amino acid composition. Heritability estimates on an entry mean basis ranged from 0.13 for His to 0.67 for Tyr. A total of 94 polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) molecular genetic markers were screened in DNA from progenies. Single factor ANOVA was used to identify candidate quantitative trait loci (QTL), which were then confirmed by QTL Cartographer. At least one QTL for each amino acid was detected in this population. QTL linked to molecular markers Satt143, Satt168, Satt203, Satt274 and Satt495 were associated with most of the amino acids. Phenotypic variation explained by an individual QTL ranged from 9.4 to 45.3%. QTL detected for amino acids in soybean in this experiment are expected to be useful for future breeding programs targeting development of improved soybean amino acid composition for human and animal nutrition.

Quantitative trait loci controlling sulfur containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, in soybean seeds

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is the single largest source of protein in animal feed. However, a major limitation of soy proteins is their deficiency in sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine (Met) and cysteine (Cys). The objective of this study was to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with Met and Cys concentration in soybean seed. To achieve this objective, 101 F(6)-derived recombinant inbred lines (RIL) from a population developed from a cross of N87-984-16 x TN93-99 were used. Ground soybean seed samples were analyzed for Met and Cys concentration using a near infrared spectroscopy instrument. Data were analyzed using SAS software and QTL Cartographer. RIL differed (P<0.01) in Met and Cys concentrations, with a range of 5.1-7.3 (g kg(-1) seed dry weight) for Cys and 4.4-8.8 (g kg(-1) seed dry weight) for Met. Heritability estimates on an entry mean basis were 0.14 and 0.57 for Cys and Met, respectively. A total of 94 polymorphic simple sequence repeat molecular genetic markers were screened in the RIL. Single factor ANOVA was used to identify candidate QTL, which were confirmed by composite interval mapping using QTL Cartographer. Four QTL linked to molecular markers Satt235, Satt252, Satt427 and Satt436 distributed on three molecular linkage groups (MLG) D1a, F and G were associated with Cys and three QTL linked to molecular markers Satt252, Satt564 and Satt590 distributed on MLG F, G and M were associated with Met concentration in soybean seed. QTL associated with Met and Cys in soybean seed will provide important information to breeders targeting improvements in the nutritional quality of soybean.

The effect of the heat processing of soybean seed on the metabolism of its selenium in lambs

The effect of the heat processing on the bioavailability of selenium (Se) in soybean seed containing 324 μg Se/kg dry matter (DM), was investigated by measuring the accumulation of Se in rumen bacteria, bodily tissues and whole blood of sheep fed diets containing differently heat processed soybean. Ground soybean seed was subjected to three heat processing treatments; 130 °C for 45 min (considered the ideal treatment); 150 °C for 30 min (over-processed treatment) and the untreated soybeans as the control (unprocessed). The acid detergent insoluble nitrogen (ADIN) concentrations of 32, 180 and 13 g/kg N in the respective heat treated soybeans were used as indication of relative heat damage inflicted on the protein in the soybeans. Thirty weaned Dohne Merino lambs ( ca. 5 months of age, live weight 23.9 ± 0.9 kg) were randomly allocated to three diets containing 436 g/kg of the differently treated soybean. The diets containing ca. 140 μg Se/kg DM, of which 0.95 originated from the soybeans, were fed for 85 days to the lambs after which they were slaughtered. Rumen bacteria from the unprocessed treatment contained a significantly higher concentration of Se (2918 μg/kg DM) compared to the over-processed treatment (2188 μg/kg DM). The liver, cardiac muscle, wool and whole blood from the ideal treatment contained consistently significantly higher concentrations of Se than either or both of the other two treatments, e.g. the liver contained 1535, 1327 and 1555 μg Se/kg DM in the ideal, control and over-processed treatments, respectively, the cardiac muscle 1616, 1527 and 1480 μg Se/kg DM, respectively, and in whole blood at the end of the trial 336, 278 and 265 μg Se/kg, respectively. It was concluded that the heat processing applied to the organic Se source in this trial affected the bioavailability of the Se, but the heat treatments might not have been sufficiently different to manifest distinct differences in the metabolism of Se in the body.

Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Flumetsulam in Soybeans

A liquid chromatography (LC) method with UV detection is reported for the determination of the sulfonamide herbicide flumetsulam in soybeans. The ground soybean sample was partitioned between methanol and hexane. The hexane removed the lipids, and the methanol layer containing the analyte was further partitioned between dichloromethane and aqueous phosphate buffer at pH 7.0. The aqueous layer, containing the analyte, was acidified to pH 2.2 and partitioned with fresh dichloromethane. The dichloromethane layer containing the analyte was evaporated, and the residue was dissolved in the LC mobile phase for analysis. A polar embedded C18 column was used with a mobile phase of pH 2.2 aqueous phosphate buffer-acetonitrile (68 + 32), run isocratically with detection at 225 nm. The average recovery was 82% with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 10%. A coefficient of determination of R2 = 0.9992 was achieved for the analyte calibration curve, from 0.005 to 1 microg/mL. The limit of detection, determined from 3 times the standard deviation of 7 replicate extractions of the lowest fortification level (0.01 microg/g), was 0.005 microg/g with an RSD of 22%. LC/electrospray ionization/mass spectrometry in the positive-ion mode was used for identity confirmation of flumetsulam in the fortified soybean extract. The ions at m/z 326, 348, and 129 were observed.

Effects of chemically treated soybeans and expeller rapeseed meal on in vivo and in situ crude fat and crude protein disappearance from the rumen

In vivo and in situ methods were used to determine whether chemical methods designed to protect feed crude protein (CP) against ruminal degradation were also effective in protecting crude fat (CF). Four diets were formulated: two rapeseed diets, consisting of (g/kg dry matter (DM)) 400 grass hay, 250 ground barley grain and 350 untreated (RM) or xylose-treated (RMT) expeller rapeseed meal and two soybean diets, consisting of (g/kg DM) 400 grass hay, 300 ground barley grain and 300 untreated (SB) or formaldehyde-treated (SBT) ground soybeans. Four German Red Pied steers, fitted with a ruminal cannula, were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square arrangement of treatments and fed once daily at 07:00 h. Each treatment period lasted 11 days. Ruminal fluid samples were collected and pH values were measured before feeding (0 h) and 2, 3 and 5 h after beginning of feeding on day 9. On day 11, the rumens of the steers were completely emptied manually 24 h after the last feeding. Additionally, feed samples were incubated in situ in the rumen of the steers for 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, 72 and 336 h. In vivo, steers fed the soybean diets had less CF and more DM, organic matter, neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre in the rumen compared to the steers fed the rapesed diets at 24 h after feeding. In situ, CF of all feedstuffs extensively disappeared from the bags and no treatment effect occurred. Concentrations of ammonia–N in ruminal fluid were lower for RMT and SBT than for RM and SB, indicating that CP of the treated feeds was protected against ruminal degradation, findings that are consistent with the in situ data. Treating ground soybeans with formaldehyde and expeller rapeseed meal with xylose, did not protect against CF degradation in the rumen, although CP protection was effective. Both in vivo and in situ methods were suitable to assess CP degradation in the rumen and both methods also indicated that chemical treatment had no effect on ruminal CF degradation, but the estimated extent of CF disappearance differed between the in vivo and in situ estimates.

High intensity ultrasound-assisted extraction of oil from soybeans

The application of 20 kHz high-intensity ultrasound during extraction of oil from two varieties of soybeans (TN 96-58 and N 98-4573) using hexane, isopropanol and a 3:2 hexane–isopropanol mixture was evaluated. In a simplified extraction procedure, ground soybeans were added to solvents and ultrasonicated between 0 and 3 h at ultrasonic intensity levels ranging from 16.4 to 47.6 W/cm 2. Oil was recovered after distillation and yield and composition determined. Using hexane as a solvent, yield generally increased as both application time and intensity of ultrasound increased. Solvent type influenced the efficiency of the extraction, i.e., the highest yield was obtained using ultrasound in combination with the mixed solvent. Gas chromatography analysis of ultrasonicated soybean oil did not show significant changes in fatty acid composition. Results were attributed to mechanical effects due to ultrasonically induced cavitation increasing permeability of plant tissues. A comparison of scanning electron microscopy images of raw and ultrasonicated soybeans indicated development of microfractures and disruption of cell walls in ground soybean flakes. Our study suggests that high-intensity ultrasound may reduce time required to extract edible oils from plant sources and hence improve throughput in commercial oil production processes.

Comparative study of heating processes for full-fat soybeans

Heating is very important to inactivate anti-nutritional factors and enhance quality of soybean products. Four heating techniques i.e. extrusion, fluidized bed, spouted bed and infrared radiation have been investigated along with their performances, regarding moisture reduction, urease inactivation, protein solubility and lysine. The rate of moisture diffusion for soybean kernel in the spouted bed and infrared dryer was described by a semi-empirical drying equation for which the drying constant was determined using non-linear regression. The experimental results have shown that the water mobility is more rapidly accelerated by infrared radiation. Every technique has a potential to reduce the urease activity to the standard range, with the quantity of remaining lysine being insignificantly different ( p<0.05) under the testing conditions. The extent of urease inactivation in each technique depends on the moisture content, time and temperature, the latter being the most important factor. High moisture content induces rapid urease inactivation for the soybeans treated by the convection and radiation-type equipments. Conversely, inhibited inactivation is encountered with the extruded soybeans due to the strong cohesive forces amongst ground soybeans at a higher moisture content of 24% d.b., inducing poor mixing behaviour in the barrel. The results from the lab- and commercial-scale equipment are shown to have higher soluble protein content in 0.2% KOH for the infrared-treated soybeans, comparing to the other techniques. Extrusion consumed the largest quantity of energy followed by the fluidized bed with no recycled air and the micronizer becomes the most effective energy utilization.

Total and polar lipids in soybean protein meals

AbstractSoybean protein meals obtained by various oil extraction methods have different neutral oil content, and they may contain differnet amounts of polar lipids. Three soy protein meals obtained by different processing methods were extracted by two solvents consecutively, chloroform/methanol (2:1, vol/vol) and water‐saturated butanol, for total lipid analysis. The organic flour (i.e., ground soybean) containted 15.52% total lipids; the high protein dispersibility index flour from extrusion‐expelling processing and the white flour from conventional solvent extraction contained 11.20 and 1.84% total lipids, respectively. Organic flour contained more polar lipids than the other two protein meals on a dry‐weight meal basis. Chloroform/methanol extracted most of the lipid from the meals, whereas water‐saturated butanol resulted in an extract with more polar lipids than that from chloroform/methanol extraction.