Ground Invertebrates Research Articles

Free‐ranging livestock reduces the habitat suitability of subalpine pheasants during breeding season in Southwest China

AbstractFree‐ranging livestock pose a threat to forest biodiversity, exerting a profound influence on the survival of several endangered species. The mountains of Southwest China represent a biodiversity hotspot enriched with pheasant species of global significance; however, the influence of free‐ranging livestock on the survival and population of forest pheasants remains unclear. We examined the impact of livestock on the habitat suitability of subalpine pheasants and the associated mechanism during the breeding season in Southwest China (forest with and without grazing) over 2 years (2018–2019). Artificial nest experiments monitored by infrared‐triggered cameras showed that the nest failure rate was 2.18 folds higher in livestock‐active areas, where livestock directly accounted for 26.09% of all nest predation events, compared with other areas. Small animal trapping and vegetation quadrat surveys showed a 46% lower abundance of ground invertebrates, a critical food resource for breeding pheasants and their chicks, in grazing areas than in grazing‐free areas. Thus, livestock grazing markedly reduces the habitat suitability of subalpine pheasants during the breeding season. These results highlight the impacts of grazing on endangered pheasant species and the underlying mechanisms, necessitating centralized livestock management in these protected areas from April to July, coupled with livelihood transformation initiatives.

Geographic gradients in a functional trait: Drivers of body size and size diversity of ground invertebrate communities

AbstractBody size is a key functional trait governing how an animal community transforms resources and conditions into performance, abundance, and fitness. Here we use the National Ecological Observatory Network of pitfall traps to explore how an ecosystem's plant productivity, temperature, and growing season length accounts for the range of body size across 99 ground invertebrate communities. The 19‐fold continental variation in mean body size failed to covary with latitude, while common ordinal subtaxa grew smaller (e.g., myriapods) to larger (e.g., acari) from Puerto Rico to Alaska. Communities with a larger mean size arose when winters were longer and gross primary productivity was high. The diversity of body sizes in a community (measured as the CV) varied ninefold and decreased with latitude (r2 = 0.24) consistently across common orders. Size‐diverse communities were less likely in ecosystems with long winters (suggesting constraints on the time to build, r2 = 0.34) and those with high invertebrate activity (and hence trap catch, r2 = 0.12). Body size distributions thus appeared to arise from conflicting combinations of constraint (i.e., the ability to build large bodies) and performance (utility of large size in surviving long winters). As warming promotes growing season length, populations of larger, rarer individuals may benefit.

Greenness and biodiversity of open spaces in primary schools and their local surroundings in England

SummaryThere is increasing disconnect between children and nature in the UK. Given that childhood nature experiences are important for the development of nature connection, well-being benefits and aspects of children’s development, mapping the existing biodiversity that children are exposed to on a daily basis in schools and their grounds is vital to identifying areas of low biodiversity and to developing strategies to increase exposure to nature. Despite children spending a large portion of time at schools, there has not yet been an in-depth, in situ assessment of the biodiversity present in school grounds. Using a sample of 14 English schools, including state-funded and non-state-funded schools, we used remote images to quantify green-space area within a 3–km buffer around (buffer greenness) and within (school greenness) each school, including the school’s grounds surrounding the buildings, and in situ images to quantify vegetation visible to children within each school’s grounds (visible vegetation). We also surveyed trees, ground plants, ground invertebrates and birds within school grounds. School greenness correlated positively with visible vegetation, but buffer greenness was not related to either school greenness or visible vegetation. Buffer greenness correlated positively with plant richness, and school greenness correlated positively with tree abundance and richness. Visible vegetation correlated positively with tree abundance and richness, maximum tree diameter at breast height, plant richness and invertebrate abundance. Non-state-funded schools had higher visible vegetation than state-funded schools. Our sample indicates that schools can support considerable biodiversity and that this is broadly consistent across state-funded and non-state-funded schools. We suggest that increasing the amount of vegetation, through planting of trees, shrubs and borders, may be the most effective method of increasing school biodiversity, as visible vegetation had effects on the greatest number of taxa.

Diversity of ground-dwelling arthropods on overburden dumps after coal mining

Technogenic landscapes formed by coal mining are unique model sites for studying primary succession. We studied the formation of arthropod communities on rock dumps at coal mine dump sites of different ages and in natural environments. Using the pitfall traps, 5 classes of arthropods were found, with the domination of Insecta and Arachnida. The species composition for most of the studied groups of invertebrates was determined, the Berger-Parker dominance and Shannon species diversity indices were calculated. It has been established that the colonization of dumps depends not only on the age of recultivated lands, but also on habitat conditions (soil characteristics, vegetation parameters). At the beginning of the succession, dumps are massively populated by small-sized species that are tolerant of extreme conditions and have high dispersal abilities. Further development of vegetation entailed a change in the general structure of the ground-dwelling of arthropods communities. Discriminant analysis showed that the macrofauna of the compared sites differs statistically significantly in the space of discriminant functions. The areas at the foot of the dump and the natural biotope are characterized by the maximum differences; the greatest similarity was found between the young and old dumps. A significant contribution to the overall discrimination is made by the beetles of the families Geotrupidae, Staphylinidae, Elateridae, as well as centipedes (Chilopoda), and terrestrial bugs (Hemiptera). This study showed that communities of ground invertebrates are good indicators for monitoring the restoration of technogenically disturbed lands.

The toughest animals of the Earth versus global warming: Effects of long-term experimental warming on tardigrade community structure of a temperate deciduous forest.

Understanding how different taxa respond to global warming is essential for predicting future changes and elaborating strategies to buffer them. Tardigrades are well known for their ability to survive environmental stressors, such as drying and freezing, by undergoing cryptobiosis and rapidly recovering their metabolic function after stressors cease. Determining the extent to which animals that undergo cryptobiosis are affected by environmental warming will help to understand the real magnitude climate change will have on these organisms. Here, we report on the responses of tardigrades within a five‐year‐long, field‐based artificial warming experiment, which consisted of 12 open‐top chambers heated to simulate the projected effects of global warming (ranging from 0 to 5.5°C above ambient temperature) in a temperate deciduous forest of North Carolina (USA). To elucidate the effects of warming on the tardigrade community inhabiting the soil litter, three community diversity indices (abundance, species richness, and Shannon diversity) and the abundance of the three most abundant species (Diphascon pingue, Adropion scoticum, and Mesobiotus sp.) were determined. Their relationships with air temperature, soil moisture, and the interaction between air temperature and soil moisture were tested using Bayesian generalized linear mixed models. Despite observed negative effects of warming on other ground invertebrates in previous studies at this site, long‐term warming did not affect the abundance, richness, or diversity of tardigrades in this experiment. These results are in line with previous experimental studies, indicating that tardigrades may not be directly affected by ongoing global warming, possibly due to their thermotolerance and cryptobiotic abilities to avoid negative effects of stressful temperatures, and the buffering effect on temperature of the soil litter substrate.

Functional losses in ground spider communities due to habitat structure degradation under tropical land-use change.

Deforestation and land-use change in tropical regions result in habitat loss and extinction of species that are unable to adapt to the conditions in agricultural landscapes. If the associated loss of functional diversity is not compensated by species colonizing the converted habitats, extinctions might be followed by a reduction or loss of ecosystem functions including biological control. To date, little is known about how land-use change in the tropics alters the functional diversity of invertebrate predators and which key environmental factors may mitigate the decline in functional diversity and predation in litter and soil communities. We applied litter sieving and heat extraction to study ground spider communities and assessed structural characteristics of vegetation and parameters of litter in rainforest and agricultural land-use systems (jungle rubber, rubber, and oil palm monocultures) in a Southeast Asian hotspot of rainforest conversion: Sumatra, Indonesia. We found that (1) spider density, species richness, functional diversity, and community predation (energy flux to spiders) were reduced by 57-98% from rainforest to oil palm monoculture; (2) jungle rubber and rubber monoculture sustained relatively high diversity and predation in ground spiders, but small cryptic spider species strongly declined; (3) high species turnover compensated losses of some functional trait combinations, but did not compensate for the overall loss of functional diversity and predation per unit area; (4) spider diversity was related to habitat structure such as amount of litter, understory density, and understory height, while spider predation was better explained by plant diversity. Management practices that increase habitat-structural complexity and plant diversity such as mulching, reduced weeding, and intercropping monocultures with other plants may contribute to maintaining functional diversity of and predation services provided by ground invertebrate communities in plantations.

Таксономический состав напочвенных беспозвоночных и их соотношение в различных типах лиственных лесов в пределах Тобольского района Тюменской области

Таксономический состав напочвенных беспозвоночных и их соотношение в различных типах лиственных лесов в пределах Тобольского района Тюменской области

Monitoring protocols for the evaluation of the impact of wild boar (Sus scrofa) rooting on plants and animals in forest ecosystems

The management of wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) is an issue of increasing global conservation concern. Statistically robust monitoring protocols, allowing the detection of biologically relevant changes in biodiversity indices due to wild boar activities, are crucial tools for the management of wild boar populations. The goal of our study was to present a robust procedure targeted towards elaborating monitoring protocols for the evaluation of the impact of wild boar rooting on forest plants and animals. We compared two pairs of macro-areas characterized by contrasting levels of rooting activity. We then evaluated the effect of rooting on several parameters of four forest communities: understorey vascular plants, ground invertebrates, Carabid beetles and small mammals. We found that the evenness of the Carabid community was significantly higher in high-rooting macro-areas. Moreover, the diversity and evenness indices of understorey vascular plants were higher in high-rooting macro-areas, while the abundance of the Etruscan shrew ( Suncus etruscus ) was higher in the low-rooting macro-areas, although these differences were only marginally significant. The results of the remaining tests were all non-significant. However, confidence intervals of measured effect sizes always included biologically relevant effects; therefore, these results should be considered inconclusive. The magnitude of the effect we detected on several biodiversity indices was considerably small (probably due to a certain degree of rooting affecting currently and in the past all the macro-areas), therefore high sampling effort should be required to detect such subtle differences. Researchers and practitioners should carefully consider the complexity of monitoring the impact of wild boar and the choice of the parameters to investigate since our study clearly shows that monitoring some biodiversity indices requires a substantial investment of sampling effort and a well-structured a priori -planning phase. Failing to do so will inevitably lead to a waste of resources and /or wrong management decisions. Click here to access supplementary files Download the complete issue.

Are nesting seabirds important determinants of invertebrate community composition on subantarctic Adams Island?

Nesting seabirds import marine-derived nutrients into terrestrial food webs, affecting invertebrate abundance and community composition directly, through provision of decaying animal matter as a food source, and indirectly through effects on vegetation and prey abundance. Invertebrates have shown strong responses to seabird presence in some, but not all, ecosystems previously studied. In contrast to mainland range contractions, New Zealand’s subantarctic islands retain abundant seabird populations. We sampled ground invertebrates on mammal-free Adams Island, using pitfall traps. We surveyed sites in two vegetation types (tussock and forest) with either no nesting seabirds or nesting colonies of Gibson’s wandering albatross, sooty shearwaters or white-headed petrels. We collected 11 invertebrate orders and identified 20 Coleoptera species or higher taxa. The carrion beetle, Paracatops antipoda comprised over 50 % of Coleoptera individuals collected. P. antipoda was more abundant in forest than tussock and was positively associated with sooty shearwaters and negatively associated with white-headed petrels when compared with bird-free sites using a Poisson generalized linear model. Sooty shearwaters were also associated with elevated abundance of several herbivorous and invertebrate decomposer taxa. Nesting seabirds do appear to influence invertebrate community composition on Adams Island, but the direction of this effect appears to be taxa-specific. Further sampling with spatial replication of colonies is required to determine the extent to which these apparent taxa-specific responses are consistent across colonies and habitats.

Species Diversity of Short Horned Grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in Selected Grasslands of Solapur District, Maharashtra, India

In the class insects, grasshopper is one of the largest and diverse group. They are dominant above ground invertebrates in cultivated and in natural grasslands ecosystems and they are functionally important. For the first time survey and collection of short horned grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) was carried out from selected grasslands of Solapur district, Maharashtra, India. Short horned grasshopper species were surveyed in selected grasslands of Solapur district, Maharashtra, India. 7 species belonging to 7 different genera i.e. Acrida, Gastrimargus, Trilophidia, Catantops, Calaptenopsis, Chrotogonus and Atractomorpha and 4 different subfamilies Tryxalinae, Cedipodinae, Catantopinae and Pyrgomorphinae were recorded.

How good are carabid beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) as indicators of invertebrate abundance and order richness?

Ground invertebrates were sampled by pitfall trapping on Brentmoor Heath, Surrey, UK during the summers of 2009 and 2010 to determine whether the abundance and species richness of carabids on bare ground patches are representative of invertebrate abundance and order richness on the same patches. Four patch sizes were investigated as well as the adjacent mown and unmown areas, and a range of environmental parameters were measured at each patch. Results show that increasing abundance and richness of carabids can give a broad indication of whether invertebrate abundance and order richness are increasing. Invertebrates in general are sensitive to a greater number of environmental variables and complex interactions than carabids are, due to the vast array of biological requirements of the large range of invertebrate species. All else being equal, smaller patches appear to benefit both carabid abundance and invertebrate abundance. Converse to the results of carabid species richness, larger patches appear to benefit invertebrate order richness. This study highlights the importance of testing the effect of habitat management strategies on a range of taxa rather than assuming the results for a bioindicator will suffice for management decisions. Whilst bioindicators may give a broad indication of effects on similar taxa, the precise nature of those effects will be determined by a number of species- and site-specific variables.

Simulated climate change in dry habitats: do spiders respond to experimental small-scale drought?

Ground invertebrates such as spiders react to changing conditions in their terrestrial environments. Due to climate change, changes of species diversity, community composition and ecological traits (e.g., habitat specialization) can be assumed. Since it is often impossible or impracticable to carry out large-scale investigations concerning the impact of microclimate change on soil arthropods, studies on responses of arthropod communities to simulated climate change at a smaller scale may be a useful alternative. I conducted a field experiment to detect potential changes in species richness, community structure and ecological traits of spiders caused by prolonged drought. In a semi-dry grassland/Juniperus communis heath complex, five 16-m 2 plots were subjected to either a drought (excluding all rain) or non-drought treatment. Activity densities of spiders were measured using pitfall traps from July to September, 2008. Although differences in microclimate between treatments were significant, no significant treatment effect on either species richness or activity densities was found. Ordination analyses (NMDS) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed no significant difference in assemblage composition between the treatments, nor were any changes in ecological traits detected. Spiders were not a suitable model group for detecting any changes in the present study, but comparable experiments yielded changes for at least some spider families and especially for microarthropods. For future small-scale studies I recommend a multi-species group approach with micro- and macroarthropods, using a broad spectrum of sampling techniques.

Foraging ecology of the globally threatened Nilgiri Wood Pigeon (Columba elphinstonii) in the Western Ghats, India

Foraging ecology of the globally endangered Nilgiri Wood Pigeon (<i>Columba elphinstonii</i>) was investigated in the Western Ghats, India, using faecal sampling and direct observations. The birds fed on fruits of 39 plant species, on seeds of 11 species, flowers and leaf buds of four species and a few ground invertebrates. Direct observations across seasons showed nine plant species were selected more often (47% of observations), with fruits of the members of the family Lauraceae the most preferred. Gleaning accounted for 76% of feeding methods throughout the year. Feeding was mainly from twigs at the edges on the upper and middle canopy (> 6 m). Frequency of feeding on fruits correlated significantly with fruit abundance, which depended on rainfall. The present study indicates that the pigeon requires a wide variety of diets from different forest environments. Conservation of this species depends on preserving all habitat types required to meet their resource needs throughout the year.

Few beetle species can be detected with 95% confidence using pitfall traps

AbstractFalse absences in wildlife surveys make it difficult to identify metapopulation processes, increase uncertainty of management decisions and bias parameter estimates in habitat models. Despite these risks, the number of species that can be detected with a certain probability in a community survey has rarely been examined. I sampled beetles over 5 months using pitfall trap grids at three rainforest locations in Tasmania, Australia. I compared detection probability for dispersed and clustered sampling schemes using a zero‐inflated binomial model and a simpler occurrence method to calculate the probability of detection. After excluding extremely rare species, I analysed 12 of 121 species. Only three to six species could be detected with 95% probability using a sampling effort that is frequently applied in ecological studies. A majority of common species had a mid summer peak in detection probability meaning that survey effort could be reduced from 5 to 2 months with only a small reduction in data quality. Most species occurred at only a proportion of sample points within locations. Despite the implied spatial structuring, three small grids within a location detected 10 of 12 species as effectively as large, dispersed grids. This study warns that as little as 5% of the beetle fauna may have a 95% probability of detection using the frequently applied pitfall trap method, highlighting a substantial limitation in our ability to accurately map the distributions of ground invertebrates. Whether very large sample sizes can overcome this limitation remains to be examined.

Does the presence of burrowing seabirds increase local invertebrate abundance?

International studies have shown that the marine nutrients introduced by seabirds can increase the abundance of terrestrial invertebrates, but to date there have been few studies on this aspect of invertebrate ecology in New Zealand. This paper reports on a study conducted on Motuora Island (Hauraki Gulf), a modifi ed island that retains a remnant breeding population of grey-faced petrels (Pterodroma macroptera gouldi). The aim of the study was to assess whether petrels have positive localised impacts on the abundance of ground invertebrates in general and on beetles in particular. Pitfall trapping was carried out at sites with seabird burrows and at sites without burrows. Invertebrates were sorted into broad taxonomic groups while beetles were sorted to species level. Beetle species were also extracted from burrow litter. The results indicate that petrels on Motuora do not have a large consistent effect on the overall abundance or biomass of ground invertebrates. However two beetle species were found to be more abundant in areas with burrows than in areas without burrows; Mesocolon sp. (Coleoptera: Leiodidae) and Eupines sp. (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Several other nidicolous beetle species were found in litter from grey-faced petrel burrows. Results suggest a number of beetle species utilize resources provided by seabirds, but further research is required to determine if seabirds have wider impacts on local invertebrate abundance.

Disparity between Adult and Juvenile American Robins Turdus migratorius Foraging for Ground Invertebrates and Cherry Fruits

AbstractAlthough it has long been known that juveniles often have foraging skills inferior to those of adults, it has generally been assumed that animal prey are more difficult to capture than fruit, and thus that juveniles foraging on fruit should be similar to adults in their efficiency. To examine these ideas, we investigated the abilities of juvenile and adult American robins Turdus migratorius to forage for ground invertebrates and fruits of the black cherry tree Prunus serotina. We hypothesized that juveniles, lacking the experience of adults, would not have the skills of adults and therefore would be less proficient invertebrate and fruit foragers. Juveniles captured 69% of invertebrates at which they struck compared with 80% of adults’ strikes that ended in capture. However, juveniles made more strikes than adults, so mean prey capture per minute was the same. Juveniles were also less skilled fruit foragers. Juveniles were twice as likely as adults to fail to pick a cherry (55% of adults’ vs. 28% of juveniles’ attempts ended in success). However, there was no significant difference in the proportion of juveniles and adults that dropped a cherry once it was picked. As a result of their low levels of success, juveniles consumed about half the number of cherries per minute as did adults. Contrary to prior assumptions, skills involved in fruit foraging may not be so easily acquired and many omnivorous species, like the American robin, must learn both invertebrate and fruit foraging skills.

A case study on Bangka Island, Indonesia on the habits and consequences of pesticide use in pepper plantations

Habits and consequences of pesticide use in pepper plantations were studied in Indonesia. The first study was conducted by questioning 117 farmers about their habits in pesticide use and determining pesticide residues on pepper berries on Bangka Island. Meanwhile, the second study was completed by analyzing exposure levels of pesticide in farmers' bodies before and after pesticide application to pepper plantations at Sukamulya, West Java. Risks of pesticide exposure to below ground terrestrial invertebrates and aquatic ecosystems adjacent to the treated fields were evaluated using scenarios and a decision support system. Results showed that five respondents (4.3%) were agricultural workers without their own plantations and the others were plantation owners. About 112 respondents (95.7%) used pesticides regularly, while 21 respondents (17.9%) had experienced pesticide poisoning. About 54 respondents (46.2%) tended to apply the same pesticide on all occasions, and 104 respondents (88.9%) indicated to always apply a single compound. About 91 respondents (77.8%) were not aware of the possible impact of pesticides on their health, and 102 respondents (87.2%) were not aware of the possible effects on the environment. In addition while spraying pesticides 17 respondents (14.5%) were smoking, 81 respondents (69.2%) were wearing daily clothes, and 84 respondents (71.8%) were throwing empty bottles into the forest. Exposure study revealed that the residues in the urine and blood increased 6.5-10 and 1.1-1.5 folds, respectively indicating actual and direct exposures. The environmental risk assessment indicated low risks for the terrestrial below ground invertebrates but high potential risks for the aquatic ecosystem. The residues of the major pesticides were below the maximum residue limits. This study indicated that the farmers and their workers, and probably also the environment, were at risk of high exposure to the pesticides applied, but that the risks for the consumers were negligible, if present at all.

Assessing the Success of Restoration Plantings in a Temperate New Zealand Forest

AbstractThe success of restoration plantings in restoring indigenous forest vascular plant and ground invertebrate biodiversity was assessed on previously grass‐covered sites in the eastern South Island, New Zealand. The composition and structure of grassland, three different aged restoration plantings (12, 30, and 35 years old), a naturally regenerating forest (100 years old), and a remnant of the original old‐growth forest of the area were measured. The restoration plantings are dominated by the native tree Olearia paniculata, which is not indigenous to the study area. Despite this, indigenous forest invertebrate and plant species are present in all three restoration sites and with increasing age the restoration sites become compositionally more similar to the naturally regenerating and mature forest sites. In particular the regenerating vegetation of the restoration sites is very similar floristically to the regenerating vegetation of the naturally regenerating and mature forest sites, despite marked differences in the current canopy vegetation reflecting the presence of the planted O. paniculata. The presence of regeneration in all three restoration sites indicates that the functional processes that initiate regeneration, such as dispersal, are present. The majority of regenerating tree species (71%) are bird dispersed and it is clear that birds play an important role in the recolonization of plant species at these sites despite the absence of edible fruit attractive to frugivorous birds on O. paniculata, a wind‐dispersed species. The strong correlations between plant and invertebrate community composition and study‐site age (r = 0.80, −0.24, −0.68 for plants, beetles, and spiders, respectively) suggest that the restoration site plant and invertebrate communities are undergoing change in the direction of the naturally regenerating and mature forest communities. Without restoration, colonization of grassland by forest plants is very slow in the study area and the restoration plantings studied here have been successful because they have considerably accelerated the return to forest at these sites.

Effects of stock grazing on the ground invertebrate fauna of woodland remnants

Habitat fragmentation can leave formerly widespread habitat types represented by only small habitat ‘islands’, and the conservation of these remnants is frequently compromised by ongoing disturbance. In northern Victoria, grazing of woodland remnants by sheep and cattle has profound effects on the vegetation structure of the woodland by removing understorey and ground vegetation. To investigate the effects of grazing pressure on remnant grey box Eucalyptus microcarpa woodland in northern Victoria, we surveyed the ground invertebrate fauna in ungrazed woodland remnants, grazed woodland remnants, and grazed pasture. The number of invertebrates caught increased from ungrazed woodland to grazed woodland to pasture, but this increase was due primarily to the most abundant orders (Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and Aranaea), and two abundant taxa characteristic of pasture (Orthoptera and Dermaptera). In contrast, most of the less abundant orders followed the opposite pattern, and were caught in higher numbers (and as a higher proportion of the total catch) in ungrazed woodland. Ungrazed woodland had a more diverse ground invertebrate fauna, most likely due to the greater diversity of food and habitat resources provided by the less disturbed vegetation. The differences in invertebrate communities corresponded to differences in vegetation and litter layers. The reduction in biodiversity of remnants due to grazing has implications for conservation management of remnant woodland in agricultural landscapes.

Vegetational and faunal changes in an area of heavily grazed woodland following relief of grazing

Two 5·6 ha inclosures were established in 1963 within an area of heavily grazed deciduous woodland in the New Forest, Hampshire. In one, a constant grazing pressure was maintained (at c. 1 fallow deer ha −1); the other was kept free of all large herbivores. The vegetation of both was surveyed 6 years, 14 years and 22 years after inclosure. Changes over time in species composition and age structure of trees in the two areas are discussed, as are changes in composition, diversity and biomass of the ground flora and shrub layer. Clear differences were apparent between the two and also, within the ungrazed site, over time. While in the grazed plot no regeneration was apparent, rapid regeneration of birch, beech, oak, Scots pine, Douglas fir and holly had occurred in the ungrazed plot by 1969; by 1985, with closure of the canopy, establishment had virtually ceased. Clear differences were also recorded in species composition of both trees and ground flora, with species resistant to grazing more abundant in the grazed plot and with many graze-sensitive or palatable species absent in that plot becoming re-established in the ungrazed area. Analysis of the three-dimensional profile of the vegetation also showed clear differences in vertical distribution in the two plots. Surveys were undertaken in 1983–1984 and in 1985 of the small mammal communities and ground invertebrates in the two areas. Marked differences in species composition again reflect structure and species composition of the vegetation under the grazed and ungrazed regimes. The factors affecting the succession which followed relief of grazing are discussed. Even after 22 years, the vegetation of the ungrazed area remains strikingly species-poor, and reasons for this—and implications for conservation— are considered.