Ground-dwelling Arthropod Communities Research Articles

Ground-dwelling arthropod community response to native grassland conversion in a temperate desert of northwestern China

Oases are common in desert regions of northwestern China and are major sites for human settlement. The implementation of oasis conservation planning has led to afforestation with appropriate shrubs and trees in the native grasslands surrounding inhabited oases. However, little is known about how this Land use change from native grassland to shrub and tree plantations influences the composition of ground-dwelling arthropod communities and the performance of their different trophic groups. To address this, we measured activity density, taxon richness, and relative abundance of four different ground arthropod trophic groups (spiders, beetle predators, beetle herbivores, and beetle detritivores) and several environmental variables affecting arthropod distributions (vegetation cover, ground temperature, soil moisture, soil properties, and leaf litter) along an experimentally established land use change gradient of a mature shrub (Haloxylon ammodendron) planation, a mature poplar (Populus gansuensis) plantation and a mature pine (Pinus sylvestris) plantation, as well as a native grassland from which all cultivated systems were converted. We found that converted shrub plantation had much lower activity density of predatory, herbivorous, and detritivorous beetles; similar activity density of spiders; and similar taxa richness of all four trophic groups relative to the native grassland. However, converted forest plantations regardless of tree species had much higher activity density of spiders, lower activity density of the three beetle groups, much higher richness of predatory beetles, and lower richness of herbivorous and detritivorous beetles. We also found a change in the composition of the ground arthropod community that was largely driven by changes in ground temperature and leaf litter mass. We conclude that conversion of native grassland to shrub and tree plantations can significantly affect ground-dwelling arthropod communities, reducing the activity of ground-dwelling beetle assemblages while increasing that of ground-dwelling spider assemblages. These findings are important for conserving native arthropod diversity in desert ecosystems.

Post-fire spatial heterogeneity alters ground-dwelling arthropod and small mammal community patterns in a desert landscape experiencing a novel disturbance regime

Anthropogenic activities have resulted in novel disturbance regimes which have unknown impacts on biodiversity. A notable example is the establishment of fire regimes in ecosystems that have not historically burned. These new disturbance regimes leave behind a complex spatial matrix with varying patterns of landscape heterogeneity. Research on novel disturbance regimes often ignores remnant vegetation within disturbed habitats, even though landscape variation in a disturbed area can influence population and community dynamics. Our objective was to understand the influence of spatial heterogeneity, characterized by varying levels of isolation and remnant vegetation, within a landscape disturbed by a novel fire regime in the Mojave Desert where wildfire was exceedingly rare to non-existent in this landscape prior to recent times. We found that community patterns of both ground-dwelling arthropods and small mammals varied based on the amount of remnant vegetation and isolation levels within burned habitats. Ground-dwelling arthropod abundance and richness measurements were highest in burned habitats that had remnant long-lived vegetation present, whereas small mammal abundance and richness measurements were highest in continuous expanses of unburned habitat. We also found that the negative impacts of fire on arthropods and small mammal communities in isolated, burned habitats were masked by the presence of long-lived perennial vegetation. Our study highlights the importance of incorporating habitat heterogeneity into future studies of novel disturbance regimes and provides evidence for the utility of restoration plantings in desert ecosystems.

Effect of naturally vs manually managed restoration on ground-dwelling arthropod communities in a desertified region

Both naturally and manually managed restoration can effectively improve degraded ecosystems; however, little is known about the option of restoration management for the recovery of ground-dwelling arthropod communities in desertified regions. Naturally restored grassland (termed here “grassland”) and manually afforested shrubland (termed here “shrubland”) were compared in relation to ground-dwelling arthropod communities; the adjacent mobile sand land was used as a control. Both types of restoration markedly improved soil and herbaceous properties, with the grassland characterized by high plant herbaceous richness and abundance in addition to low soil temperature, and the shrubland characterized by high soil fine-sand content and clay-plus-silt content as well as low coarse-sand content. Restoration management in different habitats resulted in the specific distribution of arthropod groups, with the Labiduridae and Anatolicas (Tenebrionidae) dominant in the mobile sand land and the Formicidae dominant at both restored sites. Total abundance was correlated with the dominant taxa, even for the Simpson index; both were significantly higher in the mobile sand land than in the restored sites, while no significant differences were found between the two types of restoration. Restoration management facilitated ground-dwelling arthropod diversity, including taxon richness, with markedly higher values in the restored sites compared with those in the mobile sand land. Furthermore, taxon richness and Shannon index were noticeable in the shrubland, with significantly higher values than in the grassland. Soil temperature, water content, and bulk density together explained the different structure of ground-dwelling arthropod communities at each site where the restored procedures were implemented. Overall, the manually afforested shrubland was found to contribute much more to the conservation of ground-dwelling arthropod diversity relative to the naturally restored grassland, where both restored strategies were used to facilitate the processes of fixation and recovery of desertified sand land.

Ground-dwelling arthropod communities across braided river landscape mosaics: a Mediterranean perspective

River floodplains with their constituent biodiversity are among the most endangered ecosystems worldwide. These systems are conceptualised as mosaics of aquatic and terrestrial patches at different successional stages colonised by a wide range of aquatic, semi-aquatic and terrestrial species. In three reaches in the active corridor of a French Mediterranean braided river, we tested whether community structure and composition of ground-dwelling terrestrial arthropods varied across the mosaic of terrestrial patches, and identified some of the underlying mechanisms. We predicted that arthropod community structure and composition would vary consistently with the age and position of the patches in the mosaic, due to species habitat preferences and dispersal. We also predicted that between-patch species turnover would contribute to corridor diversity to a greater extent than within-patch diversity. The natural flow regime of the Asse River promoted patch diversity in all the reaches considered. Arthropod communities differed according to patch age, indicating that successions had occurred over a decennial timescale. By contrast, the location of patches within the mosaics seemed not to affect communities, suggesting that dispersal was not limited. The contribution of between-patch diversity to corridor diversity far exceeded that of within-patch diversity, as predicted by mosaic theory. These results put the onus on river ecosystem managers to preserve natural flow regimes in braided rivers, so as to foster various types of pioneer and mature habitat patches and maintain associated biodiversity.

Declines in a ground-dwelling arthropod community during an invasion by Sahara mustard (Brassica tournefortii) in aeolian sand habitats

Sahara Mustard (Brassica tournefortii; hereafter mustard), an exotic plant species, has invaded habitats throughout the arid southwestern United States. Mustard has reached high densities across aeolian sand habitats of southwestern deserts, including five distinct sand habitats in the eastern Coachella Valley, California. We examined trends in ground-dwelling arthropod community structure concurrent with mustard invasion in 90 plots within those habitats from 2003 to 2011 (n = 773 plot·years). We expected arthropod communities to respond negatively to mustard invasion because previous work documented significant negative impacts of mustard on diversity and biomass of native plants, the primary resource base for many of the arthropods. Arthropod abundance and species richness declined during the study period while mustard cover increased, and arthropod metrics were negatively related to mustard cover across all plots. When controlling for non-target environmental correlates (e.g. perennial frequency and precipitation) and for potential factors that we suspected of mediating mustard effects (e.g. native cover and sand compaction), negative relationships with mustard remained statistically supported. Nevertheless, arthropod richness’s relationship decreased slightly in strength and significance suggesting that mechanistic pathways may be both direct (via habitat structure) and indirect (via native cover suppression and sand compaction). However, mechanistic pathways for mustard effects, particularly on arthropod abundance, remain unclear. Most arthropod taxa, including most detritivores, decreased through time and were negatively related to mustard cover. In contrast, many predators were positively related to mustard. In total, our study provides substantial evidence for a negative effect of Sahara mustard on the structure of a ground-dwelling arthropod community.

A Preliminary Assessment of the Ground-Dwelling Arthropod Community Composition in Six Common Dune Cover Types at Cape Cod National Seashore

We provide a preliminary assessment of the ground-dwelling arthropod com- munity composition in six common coastal dune ecosystem land cover-types at Cape Cod National Seashore. We captured 6815 individual arthropods representing 16 arthropod orders from 1008 terrestrial pitfall trap-nights. The most abundant orders were Hyme- noptera, Diptera, Araneae, and Isopoda (76.1%, 8.5%, 5.5%, and 3.3% of total captures, respectively). There were differences in ground-dwelling arthropod community compo- sition among the three early-successional and the three later-successional cover types, with the latter having a greater overall arthropod diversity and higher capture rates for a number of the major arthropod taxa captured. Our report is among the first community- wide analyses of arthropod community composition in coastal dune ecosystems of the northeastern US. The results from this study should be viewed as a preliminary assess- ment given that: 1) we employed a single trapping method (i.e., pitfall traps); 2) traps were only open during the late-afternoon to early morning hours, and only during the summer months; and 3) captured arthropods were classified only to order. We hope our report will inspire additional research of coastal dune arthropod communities.

Shrubs and species identity effects on the distribution and diversity of ground-dwelling arthropods in a Gobi desert

Disentangling the relationship between shrub vegetation and ground-dwelling arthropods at multiple levels of taxonomic resolution is essential to developing a suitable management strategy for the conservation of shrub-associated arthropod biodiversity in shrubland ecosystems. Using Gobi desert (dominated by shrub species Nitraria sphaerocarpa and Reaumuria soongorica) occurring widely in inland arid areas of northwest China as a model system, we sampled ground-dwelling arthropods by pitfall trapping method under canopies of both shrubs and in intershrub bare areas during spring, summer and autumn. Our aim was to determine whether the presence and species identity of shrubs influence the distribution of ground-dwelling arthropods and whether the influence of shrub presence and species identity differs among trophic and taxonomic groups. At the community level, total arthropod abundance and species richness were significantly greater under shrubs than in intershrub bare habitats, whereas more arthropods were captured under N. sphaerocarpa than under R. soongorica. At the trophic group level, the abundance of predator and decomposer arthropods was significantly greater under shrubs than in intershrub bare habitats, whereas herbivore and decomposer arthropods were more abundant under N. sphaerocarpa than under R. soongorica. At the family level, the abundance of Carabidae, Gnaphosidae, Karschiidae, Tenebrionidae and Thomisidae was consistently much greater under shrubs than in intershrub bare habitats, whereas that of Formicidae, Philodromidae and Tettigoniidae did not differ between the shrub microhabitats and the intershrub bare habitats. However, the abundance of Curculionidae under R. soongorica and the abundance of Geotrupidae under N. sphaerocarpa were significantly lower than that in intershrub bare habitats. N. sphaerocarpa was commonly preferred by arthropods in the families of Curculionidae and Tenebrionidae, whereas R. soongorica was commonly preferred by arthropods in the family Geotrupidae, but shrub species identity did not affect the abundance of the remaining families. Our results suggest that shrubs and species identity play important roles in structuring ground-dwelling arthropod communities, but the response of arthropods differed among trophic or taxonomic groups. This study may have important implications for the conservation of invertebrate biodiversity in Gobi desert ecosystems.

Large-scale experimental landscapes reveal distinctive effects of patch shape and connectivity on arthropod communities

The size, shape, and isolation of habitat patches can affect organism behavior and population dynamics, but little is known about the relative role of shape and connectivity in affecting ecological communities at large spatial scales. Using six sampling sessions from July 2001 until August 2002, we collected 33,685 arthropods throughout seven 12-ha experimental landscapes consisting of clear-cut patches surrounded by a matrix of mature pine forest. Patches were explicitly designed to manipulate connectivity (via habitat corridors) independently of area and edge effects. We found that patch shape, rather than connectivity, affected ground-dwelling arthropod richness and beta diversity (i.e. turnover of genera among patches). Arthropod communities contained fewer genera and exhibited less turnover in high-edge connected and high-edge unconnected patches relative to low-edge unconnected patches of similar area. Connectivity, rather than patch shape, affected the evenness of ground-dwelling arthropod communities; regardless of patch shape, high-edge connected patches had lower evenness than low- or high-edge unconnected patches. Among the most abundant arthropod orders, increased richness in low-edge unconnected patches was largely due to increased richness of Coleoptera, whereas Hymenoptera played an important role in the lower evenness in connected patches and patterns of turnover. These findings suggest that anthropogenic habitat alteration can have distinct effects on ground-dwelling arthropod communities that arise due to changes in shape and connectivity. Moreover, this work suggests that corridors, which are common conservation tools that change both patch shape and connectivity, can have multiple effects on arthropod communities via different mechanisms, and each effect may alter components of community structure.

The Ground-Dwelling Arthropod Community of Península Valdés in Patagonia, Argentina

This is the first study based on a planned and intensive sampling effort that describes the community composition and structure of the ground-dwelling arthropod assemblage of Península Valdés (Patagonia). It was carried out using pitfall traps, opened for two weeks during the summers of 2005, 2006 and 2007. A total of 28, 111 individuals were caught. Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) dominated this community, followed by beetles (Coleoptera) and spiders (Araneae). The most abundant species were Pheidole bergi Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Blapstinus punctulatus Solier (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Two new species were very recently described as new based on specimens collected during this study: Valdesiana curiosa Carpintero, Dellapé & Cheli (Hemiptera, Miridae) and Anomaloptera patagonica Dellapé & Cheli (Hemiptera, Oxycarenidae). The order Coleoptera was the most diverse taxa. The distribution of abundance data was best described by the logarithmic series model both at the family and species levels, suggesting that ecological relationships in this community could be controlled by a few factors. The community was dominated by predators from a trophic perspective. This suggests that predation acts as an important factor driving the distribution and abundances of surface-dwelling arthropods in this habitat and as such serves as a key element in understanding desert, above-ground community structure. These findings may also be useful for management and conservation purposes in arid Patagonia.

Ground-dwelling arthropod communities present in three types of Cantabrian (NW Spain) heathland grazed by sheep or goats

The abundance, diversity and community composition of ground-dwelling arthropods present in three different types of Cantabrian heathland grazed by small ruminants were studied. A factorial design of three vegetation types (heather-, gorse- or grass- dominated) and two grazer species (sheep or goats) with two replicates was established in twelve 0.6 ha paddocks. Ground-dwelling arthropods (Araneae, Opiliones, Isopoda, Julida, Microcoryphia, Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera) were recorded using pit- fall traps and plant cover and canopy height assessed in each paddock in 2005, 2006 and 2007. Higher abundances and more families of ground dwelling arthropods were recorded in areas dominated by heather, although certain species were more numerous in areas dominated by grass. The direct effects of the grazer species on arthropods were subtle compared to their great effect on the vegeta- tion. Significant interactions between grazer species and vegetation were observed for some taxa and the overall arthropod commu- nity composition. Gradient analyses indicate that arthropod assemblages that include Lycosidae, Opiliones and Carabidae differed between vegetation types and years, but are not affected by the grazer species. Our study shows that areas dominated by shrubby and diverse heather had the highest diversity and abundance of arthropods. Species composition varied along a gradient in the structure of the vegetation, which in turn was modified by the grazer species.

The effects of hydramethylnon on the tropical fire ant, Solenopsis geminata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), and non-target arthropods on Spit Island, Midway Atoll, Hawaii

Invasive ants can cause major disruptions in native ecosystems. Ant eradication methods without significant non-target effects are needed to stop incipient invasions and to aid in ecosystem restoration. Successful ant eradications are rare and there is very little understanding of the effects of ant eradication methods, such as the use of formicides, on non-target species. Here we attempted to control and possibly eradicate the invasive tropical fire ant, Solenopsis geminata, from a small islet using the formicide Maxforce® (active ingredient: hydramethylnon), and to quantify the non-target effects on an almost exclusively alien ground-dwelling arthropod community. S. geminata abundance was reduced and the species was not detected on bait cards for 12 months post-treatment. The abundance of another non-target invasive ant that was primarily detected in pitfall traps, Tetramoruim bicarinatum, declined in pitfall traps following treatment, but seemed to be excluded from bait cards by S. geminata. Total ant abundance did not return to original levels until more than 12 months post-treatment. Populations of alien cockroaches (Order Blattaria) and crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) were negatively affected by the treatment. We conclude that Maxforce® can be used to control small infestations of S. geminata and T. bicarinatum effectively; however we recommend it be used cautiously due to the potential ecological cost to non-target species. Use in areas where infestations are small and isolated will maximize the likelihood of success while minimizing non-target effects.

Plant genotypic diversity and environmental stress interact to negatively affect arthropod community diversity

Many studies have found positive relationships between plant diversity and arthropod communities, but the interactive effects of plant genetic diversity and environmental stress on arthropods are not well documented. In this study, we investigated the consequences of plant genotypic diversity, watering treatment, and its interaction for the ground-dwelling arthropod community in an experimental common garden of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.). We found that varying plant genotypic diversity and watering treatment altered multivariate arthropod community composition and structure. Arthropod biodiversity and richness showed a distinct response to the plant diversity × watering treatment interaction, declining sharply in water-limited genotypic mixtures. Abundance of arthropod functional groups did not show any response to diversity or the plant diversity × watering treatment interaction, but varied in their response to watering treatment, with predator and detritivore abundance increasing and parasitoid abundance decreasing in well-watered blocks. Our results conflict with most previous studies, and suggest that environmental stress can substantially change the nature of the plant-arthropod diversity relationship. Additionally, we suggest that the plant-arthropod diversity relationship is dependent on the type of plant and arthropod species sampled, and that the association between tree diversity and ground-dwelling arthropods may be much different than more commonly studied grassland species and herbivorous arthropods.

Comparative Analysis of Plant and Ground Dwelling Arthropod Communities in Lacustrine Dune Areas with and without Centaurea Biebersteinii (Asteraceae)

ABSTRACT Open dune systems are being degraded through human development and exotic species invasions. The Grand Sable Dunes, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan, are protected from development but not from the spread of exotic species. The invasive exotic spotted knapweed, Centaurea biebersteinii, has invaded significant portions of this dune system. Areas without spotted knapweed had higher native plant diversity than areas with spotted knapweed, as well as lower exotic plant diversity. Of native plant species occurring in the highest frequencies along transects in both spotted knapweed infested and non-spotted knapweed infested areas, four out of the five species were more likely to be encountered along transects in non-spotted knapweed areas than along transects in spotted knapweed areas. Insect families Curculionidae and Formicidae were captured more often in areas with spotted knapweed. Increased dune stabilization increased the ability of exotic plant species not adapted to the actively shif...

Geographic Patterns of Ground-dwelling Arthropods Across an Ecoregional Transition in the North American Southwest

Abstract We examined the biogeographic patterns of ground-dwelling arthropod communities across a heterogeneous semiarid region of the Southern Rio Grande Rift Valley of New Mexico. Our 3 sites included portions of 5 ecoregions, with the middle site a transition area where all ecoregions converged. We addressed the following 3 questions: (1) Do the species assemblage patterns for ground arthropods across habitats and sites conform to recognized ecoregions? (2) Are arthropod assemblages in distinct vegetation-defined habitats within an ecoregion more similar to each other or to assemblages in similar vegetation-defined habitats in other ecoregions? (3) Is there a detectable edge effect with increased arthropod diversity in the area of converging ecoregions? We encountered 442 target arthropod species from pitfall traps operating continuously for 7 years over a series of different habitats at each of the 3 sites. We examined geographic distributions of spider and cricket/grasshopper species in detail, and t...

The influence of organic transition systems on beneficial ground-dwelling arthropods and predation of insects and weed seeds

AbstractThe influence of farm management practices on ground-dwelling natural enemy communities and predation of insects and weed seeds was investigated over the first 2 years of the transition from conventional to organic production. Three transition strategies were selected that differed in their management and input intensities, and were characteristic of pasture/ley systems (low intensity), cash grain systems (intermediate intensity), and vegetable production (high intensity). Beneficial arthropods (insectivores and granivores) were monitored using pitfall (arthropod activity) and quadrat (arthropod density) samples. The frequency of predation on restrained larvae ofGalleria mellonellaand the species observed feeding were recorded. Weekly removal rates of weed seeds representative of abundant species at our site were monitored over a 3-week period during fall. Management intensity affected the activity and abundance of biological control agents. In year two of the transition, biological control agent densities were higher in the low-intensity treatment than in the other two treatments, but activity of insectivores and granivores was reduced in this treatment relative to the higher intensity systems. The patterns in the abundances of biological control agents may be explained by habitat stability within the different cropping systems. Quadrat samples were strongly correlated with the insectivory index, although pitfall samples were not. Insectivory rates were highest (>80% ofG. mellonellalarvae) in the low-intensity treatment. Predation patterns over a 17-h period differed substantially among the management treatments, indicating behaviorally distinct insectivore communities. Seed removal was also highest in the low-intensity treatment. We conclude that low-intensity cropping systems are most favorable to the abundance and function of beneficial ground-dwelling arthropod communities (insectivores and granivores) during the transition process.

RAPID ASSESSMENT OF SPECIES DIVERSITY CHANGES AFTER PESTICIDE APPLIC ATION IN AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES

The aim of our study was to assess the changes in ground-dwelling arthropod communities structure in wheat, potatoes and lucerne crops, with and without pesticides application. We estimated the impact of chemical control on species richness and propose several indicators for biodiversity assessment. The significant differences between agrosystem structure in control and pesticide-treated crops indicated that aboveground arthropod diversity can be used as an indicator of biological diversity reduction assessment. The best estimator indices for human induced impacts are taxa richness, the ratio between species richness and the number of individuals in control and pesticide treated samples, the changes in the ratio between primary–secondary consumers, and the proportion of spiders (Aranea). The use of diversity indices in impact assessment was misleading or inconclusive in some cases. Only the Shannon-Wiener index appears to perform relatively well, but sample sizes must be first equalized through rarefaction.

Conservation of prairie dog ecosystem engineering may support arthropod beta and gamma diversity

Ecosystem engineering by animals can create new habitats and increase the heterogeneity of the habitat mosaic that in turn can increase plant and animal diversity. Prairie dogs in North America alter both the above- and below-ground structure of the landscape and create novel habitats in grassland ecosystems. The ground-dwelling arthropod community associated with Gunnison's prairie dog modified habitats is compositionally different from that found in the surrounding grassland. Individual arthropod families and species have different distributions in both active prairie dog towns and inactive towns, compared to unmodified grasslands. These different responses to ecosystem engineering increase beta (between-habitat) and gamma (regional) diversity. This study suggests that simple measures of alpha diversity (species richness) may not adequately quantify overall diversity and that measures of beta diversity may be necessary to assess the role of prairie dogs as keystone engineers. Thus, conservation of prairie dogs and the engineering process may have positive effects for numerous species both locally and regionally.

Influence of long-term dormant-season burning and fire exclusion on ground-dwelling arthropod populations in longleaf pine flatwoods ecosystems

Frequent dormant-season prescribed burns were applied at 1-, 2- and 4-year intervals to longleaf pine stands, Pinus palustris, for over 40 years on the Osceola National Forest in Baker County, Florida. Control plots were unburned for the same period of time. Pitfall traps were operated from November 1994 to October 1999 to measure the short- and long-term effects of prescribed burning frequency on the relative abundance and diversity of ground-dwelling macroarthropods. We also measured dead and live plant biomass to determine how long-term frequent fires affected the structure of the forest floor. The average total dead plus live plant biomass was significantly higher on plots where fire had been excluded. Annual and biennial burning resulted in about the same amount of total plant biomass (dead and live plant material combined) which was significantly less than the quadrennially burned plots. Shannon diversity ( H′) and evenness of ground-dwelling arthropods were reduced by burning. Annually burned plots had the lowest diversity and evenness while biennially and quadrennially burned plots also were significantly lower than unburned control plots. Dormant-season burning did not increase the number of rare genera regardless of frequency. Percent similarity of arthropod communities was highest for comparisons between plots that had been burned (60–68%) and lowest for the comparison of annually burned plots to unburned controls (37%). Examination of diversity and similarity through time showed that changes were due to short-term effects caused by the application of fire and not long-term changes in the ground-dwelling arthropod community. Burning significantly reduced the numbers of predators regardless of fire frequency and resulted in an increased number of detritivores. A total of 42 genera were reduced by prescribed burning; 32 genera were captured in greater numbers on annually burned plots, and 11 genera had higher numbers in one or both of the intermediate burn frequencies (biennial or quadrennial). Twenty-six genera were captured in equal numbers on quadrennially and annually burned plots, but in significantly lower numbers than on unburned plots, demonstrating that 4 years was insufficient time for their populations to recover from mild dormant-season fires. Arthropod response to burning appeared to be species specific so attempts to generalize how arthropods will respond based on a few species or groups should be avoided. The slow recovery rate of so many species suggests that management oriented toward conservation of biodiversity in longleaf pine flatwoods should include areas of fire exclusion.

Assembly Rules: Desert Rodent Communities Are Structured at Scales from Local to Continental

Assembly Rules: Desert Rodent Communities Are Structured at Scales from Local to Continental

Assembly Rules: Desert Rodent Communities Are Structured at Scales from Local to Continental

Assembly Rules: Desert Rodent Communities Are Structured at Scales from Local to Continental