Ground Crew Research Articles

Occupational risk factors for low grade and high grade glioma

Schlehofer et al.1 conducted a case-control study (1,178 cases of glioma, 1,987 community based controls) in 8 collaborating centres regarding occupational exposures. Occupational histories were obtained and data analysed by reference to several a priori occupational groups including electrical/electronic work, metal work, etc. An increased risk was found for men with low grade glioma and metal work and for women in the food processing industry. They concluded that “the results generally do not provide evidence of a strong association between occupational exposures and glioma development.” This conclusion should be questioned as it critically depends on the accuracy of the occupational histories. Histories were obtained by interview from cases and controls of every job held for more than 3 months, and exposure assessed by: (i) the kind of industry; (ii) “the precise characterisation of the occupational activity, including duration in years and the hours per week”; and (iii) a list of 78 substances of interest was presented to the interviewee. An exposure to a category was defined to occur if working lifetime exposure was >5 years. Also exposures were graded depending on the number of hours of exposure as none, low, medium or high. Exposures occurring over 25 years previous to and <5 years before diagnosis were excluded. Accuracy of recall of the hours worked and the exposures incurred up to 25 years ago depends on a lucid memory. For the cases memory is likely to be impaired by the brain tumor per se, the psychological distress of diagnosis of a fatal and painful illness, and the effects of treatment by deep X-ray therapy and surgery. No assessment of intactness of memory, such as application of a Mini-Mental State Examination, was conducted to ensure competence and consistency of accurate recall in subjects in the 8 collaborating centres. Both memory loss and recall bias will corrupt the data. There is no evidence presented of any attempt to validate the occupational histories and exposure data so obtained. Such variable data extraction will lead to considerable misclassification of exposures and increase the likelihood of a null finding. In a companion article Schlehofer et al.2 report that of the 1,178 glioma cases a proxy was interviewed in 315 (26%) cases because subjects were “not available.” The ability of a proxy (presumably a spouse or possibly numerous work mates) to recall the details of exposures by the case in hours up to 25 years ago with accuracy is highly doubtful. Thus a quarter of the exposure data is likely to be substantially inaccurate. The above comments are particularly pertinent to the electromagnetic field (EMF) exposures. Unfortunately the authors incorrectly refer to extremely low frequency fields (ELF, 1–300 Hz) as “low frequency” and to radio frequency radiation (RFR, 3 kHz–3 GHz) as “high frequency.” Standard terminology is helpful to the reader in scientific studies. The history-taking method used by the authors assumes workers will recognise when they are exposed to EMF. This is questionable. For example, it is doubtful many workers will realise that a powerful industrial electric motor (415 V, 50 Hz) enclosed behind the cowling of a machine with which they are working (i.e., when metal stamping) is emitting fields incident upon them (metal cowling is transparent to magnetic fields). Similarly how would ground crew at an airport know when they are being repeatedly exposed to intense radar from the nose cone of taxiing aircraft? Moreover, even when a source is recognised, because the intensity of fields decreases with the square of the distance, it invites inaccurate assessment and hence misclassification of exposure. The authors correctly state that direct measurement of 50 Hz magnetic field is recognised as the proper way to measure these exposures but do not alter their overall conclusion of no effects from these exposures even though recognising this major deficiency. The study has major flaws regarding the crucial occupational history taking from cases, particularly from the proxies, and hence the exposure analysis is vitiated. Because of this, no valid conclusions about the presence or absence of an association between these exposures and glioma, particularly regarding EMF, can be drawn. It is regrettable the abstract does not present more information on the data extraction problems, some of which the authors have recognised, to alert the reader to these shortcomings. Yours sincerely, Bruce Hocking.

WINTER PREY SELECTION AND ESTIMATION OF WOLF KILL RATES IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 1995–2000

Wolf (Canis lupus) impacts on prey are a central post-wolf-reintroduction issue in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem (GYE) of the western United States. Further, estimates of wolf kill rates, used to understand these impacts, can be biased due to unrecovered kills. In Yellowstone National Park (YNP), visibility of wolves allowed us to combine independent aerial and ground observations and use a double-count method to estimate the probability of recovering kills. We consequently used these data to adjust estimates of wolf kill rates. We conducted monitoring annually from 1995 to 2000 during 2 30-day periods in early (15 Nov–14 Dec) and late winter (Mar). Estimated recovery rates of wolf kills for ground and aerial crews were 50% and 45%, respectively, although we determined that this varied by location (distance from road) and possibly age (calf or adult) of the kill. The estimated combined recovery rate was 73%. Estimated wolf kill rates were higher in late winter (2.2 kills/wolf/month) compared to early winter (1.6 kills/wolf/month), with an overall estimated rate of 1.9 kills/wolf/month. The primary prey of wolves in winter was elk (Cervus elaphus; 90%). During our study, 43% of the elk killed were calves, 28% were adult females (cows), 21% were adult males (bulls), and 9% were of unknown age/sex. Comparing prey selection to prey availability, wolf packs residing on the northern range (NR) of the GYE selected for calves, against cows, and approximately proportional to availability for bulls. Prey use was different for wolf packs occupying the NR compared to packs residing in other areas (non-northern range [NNR]) and varied seasonally for NR packs. Variation in wolf kill rates by season, and the relative stability of the northern Yellowstone elk herd during a series of mild winters despite increases in wolf density, suggest that kill rates and ultimately elk population size are influenced by winter weather. Management of ungulates should reflect the addition of wolves combined with the unpredictability of winter weather in the mountainous terrain of the western United States.

Medical considerations in the use of helicopters in mountain rescue.

The outcome of patient care can be dramatically improved by bringing rapid rescue and medical care to the mountain rescue scene and by rapid transport to a medical facility. The use of a helicopter for these purposes is common. It is necessary when it has clear advantages for victims in comparison with ground rescue and transport. Helicopters should work within the existing emergency medical system and must be staffed by appropriate mountain rescue and medically trained personnel. Activation time should be as short as possible. Activation of a helicopter for a mountain rescue should primarily include indication and assessment of flight and safety conditions. No other mediators or delaying factors should be permitted. The main safety criteria are appropriate mountain rescue and flight training, competence of air and ground crews, radio communication between the air and ground crews, and mission briefing before the rescue. Criteria for a helicopter used for mountain rescue are proper medical and rescue equipment, load capacity, adequate space, and others. There are two main groups of indications for use of a helicopter for mountain rescue: the patient's condition and the circumstances at the site of the accident. All persons responsible for the activation of the helicopter rescue operation should be aware of specific problems in the mountains or wilderness.

Sampling and Analysis of Aircraft Engine Cold Start Particles and Demonstration of an Electrostatic Personal Particle Sampler

Aircraft engines emit an aerosol plume during startup in extremely cold weather that can drift into areas occupied by flightline ground crews. This study tested a personal sampler used to assess exposure to particles in the plume under challenging field conditions. Area and personal samples were taken at two U.S. Air Force (USAF) flightlines during the winter months. Small tube-and-wire electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) were mounted on a stationary stand positioned behind the engines to sample the exhaust. Other ESPs were worn by ground crews to sample breathing zone concentrations. In addition, an aerodynamic particle sizer 3320 (APS) was used to determine the size distribution of the particles. Samples collected with the ESP were solvent extracted and analyzed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results indicated that the plume consisted of up to 75 mg/m(3) of unburned jet fuel particles. The APS showed that nearly the entire particle mass was respirable, because the plumes had mass median diameters less than 2 micro m. These tests demonstrated that the ESP could be used at cold USAF flightlines to perform exposure assessments to the cold start particles.

Sampling and analysis of aircraft engine cold start particles and demonstration of an electrostatic personal particle sampler.

Aircraft engines emit an aerosol plume during startup in extremely cold weather that can drift into areas occupied by flightline ground crews. This study tested a personal sampler used to assess exposure to particles in the plume under challenging field conditions. Area and personal samples were taken at two U.S. Air Force (USAF) flightlines during the winter months. Small tube-and-wire electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) were mounted on a stationary stand positioned behind the engines to sample the exhaust. Other ESPs were worn by ground crews to sample breathing zone concentrations. In addition, an aerodynamic particle sizer 3320 (APS) was used to determine the size distribution of the particles. Samples collected with the ESP were solvent extracted and analyzed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results indicated that the plume consisted of up to 75 mg/m(3) of unburned jet fuel particles. The APS showed that nearly the entire particle mass was respirable, because the plumes had mass median diameters less than 2 micro m. These tests demonstrated that the ESP could be used at cold USAF flightlines to perform exposure assessments to the cold start particles.

Next generation test support systems for the aircraft life cycle

The objective of this paper is to present the experience of EADS in using a common test support system for integration and qualification testing, aircraft ground equipment (AGE), in-service software maintenance facilities (ISMF) and ground crew training. EADS uses its test support system AIDASS (Advanced Integrated Data Acquisition and Stimulation System) in different phases of the aircraft life cycle. AIDASS is comprised of a real-time front-end system and a standard PC for the user interface. The EADS test support system is used in almost all phases of the aircraft life cycle, for instance, for integration and verification testing, as aircraft ground equipment, for in-service software maintenance and training of ground crews. This test support system is used for the software maintenance in the TORNADO program at different airforces in Europe. The airforces also share test setups with industry.

NASA Addresses Mental Health Of Mars-Mission Members

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article Professional NewsFull AccessNASA Addresses Mental Health Of Mars-Mission MembersJoan Arehart-TreichelJoan Arehart-TreichelSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:1 Feb 2002https://doi.org/10.1176/pn.37.3.0005Many Americans thought it was impossible. But in 1969 the United States got a manned spacecraft to the moon and back. During the 1980s and 1990s, some Americans had similar doubts about an international space station. Yet it too came to pass. So there is little reason to think that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) plan to send astronauts to Mars, perhaps as early as 2014, will not become a reality.A manned Mars mission will take two-and-a-half or three years, however, and would undoubtedly present mental and physical health risks that shorter space missions do not. So NASA asked the Institute of Medicine to prepare a report to help it identify the mental and physical health risks that astronauts would be up against during such a mission. NASA also wanted advice on how to mitigate those risks. The Institute of Medicine’s report, titled “Safe Passage: Astronaut Care for Exploration Missions,” has now been published.The three major health risks that astronauts will face on a long-term mission such as to Mars, the report stated, are exposure to radiation, bone loss, and mental/behavioral health problems. So, in the mental/behavioral health area, as in the radiation and bone-loss ones, it is important that NASA do three things before it sends astronauts on such a long-term mission, the report asserts.One of these steps is to conduct research to better understand the risks involved. A second is to conduct research to learn how to protect astronauts from such risks. And the third is to put a health care system into place that can protect astronauts from those risks.Here are several of the questions about mental/behavioral health risks that the report indicates should be answered:• What would happen to a person’s mental and behavioral health if he or she were cooped up with six or seven other individuals during a three-year period?• What would living and working together in such close quarters over such an extended time do to group interactions? “Schisms, friction, withdrawal, competitiveness, scapegoating, and other maladaptive group behaviors are found among highly competent men and women working together in normal terrestrial settings,” the report stated. “They can also be expected among astronaut crews.”• If mental and behavioral health problems arose among a flight crew, how could the ground crew intervene effectively, especially as it would take some 40 minutes for the flight crew to communicate with the ground crew and for the ground crew’s response to get back to the flight crew?• What sorts of mental/behavioral health supports would the flight crew need both from people back on earth and from each other?• How could the mental and behavioral performance of the flight crew be monitored from earth?• What kinds of tools might be developed so that flight-crew members could monitor their own moods and cognitive functioning?• Finally, what kinds of mental health care might the astronauts need after returning to earth from such a long journey in space?The Institute of Medicine is a private, nonprofit organization that provides health policy advice under a congressional charter granted to the National Academy of Sciences. NASA funded the preparation of the report.The 318-page Institute of Medicine report, “Safe Passage: Astronaut Care for Exploration Missions,” can be read online at www.nap.edu/catalog/10218.html. A summary of the mental/behavioral health recommendations contained in the report can be found in a box titled “Behavioral Health and Performance Research and Development Opportunities.” This box can be read online at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309075858/html/14.html. ▪ ISSUES NewArchived

SPRAY BOOM FOR SENSING AND SELECTIVELY SPRAYING SMALL MESQUITE ON HIGHWAY RIGHTS–OF–WAY

The program currently used for mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var. glandulosa) control on highwayrightsofway in Texas, mowing and hand spraying of all basal stems by ground crews, is extremely labor intensive and theacreage that can be treated annually is limited. The objective of this work was to develop a spray boom that would sensemesquite plants and selectively apply an effective highvolume foliar spray containing 0.5% clopyralid + 0.5% triclopyr tothe mesquite plants. Sprayers were designed for a tractor and an allterrain vehicle (ATV) that utilized beams of pulsedinfrared light to sense mesquite canopies. Controllers were designed to send fixedduration pulses of voltage to solenoidvalves for spray release through flatfan nozzles when mesquite canopies interrupted the light beams. Height of the spraybooms was adjusted onthego by the operator to minimize the release of excessive amounts of spray by tall grass or weeds.The tractormounted sprayer performed at 1.73, 1.48, and 1.15 ha/h in field plots with an average of 276, 985, and970 mesquite/ha, respectively, and within each test site, performance was independent of mesquite density because groundspeed remained constant. The tractormounted sprayer missed 13 to 31% of the target plants. The ATVmounted sprayerperformed at 1.72 ha/h in field trials where mesquite densities averaged 625/ha and missed only 16% of the target plants.Predicted performance for the ATV unit in densities of 200, 500, and 1000 mesquite/ha was 2.51, 1.76, and 1.11 ha/h. Thelevels of mesquite mortality achieved, 38 to 67% for the tractormounted sprayer and 44% for the ATVmounted sprayer,were equivalent to those mortality levels that have been achieved by ground crews hand spraying the same herbicide solutionto mesquite regrowth in highway rightsofway. These mesquitesensing sprayers offer a viable alternative to hand sprayingwhere labor is limiting and where vast areas must be treated. Mesquite canopies must be about 30 cm taller than associatedvegetation to minimize offtarget deposition of herbicide solution.

Factors influencing the efficiency of fixed wing aerial hunting for coyotes in the western United States

Aerial hunting is an effective tool for the removal of problem coyotes ( Canis latrans). However, factors that predict hunt success remain largely obscure. To address this issue, we asked USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services pilots in five western states to record meteorological data, ground conditions, and flight circumstances (e.g., purpose of flight, whether or not a ground crew was used) between December 1998 and August 1999. We obtained 426 flight records and evaluated them in relation to coyotes seen/h and coyotes killed/h of aerial hunting, with pilot as a covariate. Air temperature, resource to be protected, use of ground crew, degree of preventative control, cloud cover, snow cover, vegetative cover, wind direction, season, and lunar phase were significantly ( p⩽0.05) related to coyotes killed/h of aerial hunting. Variables that were not significantly ( p⩾0.05) related to coyotes killed/h were wind speed, steepness of terrain, barometric pressure and shotgun cartridge type. Our findings may have practical implications for increasing the efficiency of both aerial survey and aerial hunting operations important for coyote damage management.

’The trapeze artists and the ground crew’ police cooperation and intelligence exchange mechanisms in Europe and North America: A comparative empirical study

Based on the discourses of police officers, this article explores the reasons why co‐operation treaties and information exchange mechanisms intended to ensure official transnational policing have been imperfectly applied in both Europe and North‐America. Initially, police representatives were concerned about how to manage effective control measures in a more or less continental frame‐work, but these concerns were recuperated by bureaucrats from outside police organizations who formalized ways of communicating and cooperating between police agencies and this happened on both continents. What was designed for efficiency and accountability turned out to be so distant from practical police work that, in the end, patrolmen and detectives did not abandon the informal networks they had already become accustomed to using. This merely added to the maze of communication channels and may not have significantly improved the security of citizens.

Oxygenation/ventilation of transported intubated adult patients: A national survey of organizational practices

Introduction: Transporting intubated patients is common among ground and air crews, and providing adequate oxygenation/ventilation through transport ventilators (TV) or manual ventilation (MV) is clinically challenging. However, very little data chronicle service or practice patterns of oxygenation/ventilation within the industry. Methods: During February 1998, a national sample of 250 air transport agencies was surveyed regarding activities and services surrounding this population of transported patients. One-hundred-ninety-three surveys (77%) were returned. Results: Approximately 40% of responding agencies use rotor-wing transportation only. Various combinations of rotor-, fixed-wing, and critical care ground transport were reported among the sample. Crew configuration consisted primarily of RN/EMT-P (75%). For prehospital intubated patients, MV alone (37.3%), TV alone (10.9%), or a combination of MV and TV (43.5%) was used, depending on transport circumstances. Programs not involved in prehospital transports accounted for 8.3% of returned surveys. Interfacility transports used MV (6.8%), TV (39.4%), and a combination (53.4%). One respondent did not answer the question, accounting for 0.4% of the returned surveys. More than 75% of programs monitored oxygenation/ventilation during transport. Usually some combination of pulse oximetry and CO 2 monitoring was used. More than half (59%) of reporting agencies transport more than 80 intubated adults each year. Conclusion: Considerable variation exists in practices involving the transport of intubated patients.

Chronic Jet Lag Produces Cognitive Deficits

Traveling across time zones causes disruption to the normal circadian rhythms and social schedules because of travelers' shift in time. As the endogenous circadian timing system adapts slowly to new time cues, the phase relationship between biological rhythms and external time cues are out of synchronization for a period of time. This disturbance of circadian rhythms has been shown to impair physical and psychological health (Winget et al., 1984). To test the effects of repeated jet lag on mental abilities, airline cabin crew were compared with ground crew. Salivary cortisol was used as a physiological marker for circadian disruption. The cabin crew group, who had a history of repeated jet lag, had significantly higher salivary cortisol levels in an average working day. In addition, this elevated level of cortisol was only seen in the same subjects when the cabin crew were on transmeridian flights but not domestic flights. Cabin crew also exhibited cognitive deficits, possibly in working memory, that became apparent after several years of chronic disruption of circadian rhythms.

Personal Exposure to JP-8 Jet Fuel Vapors and Exhaust at Air Force Bases

JP-8 jet fuel (similar to commercial/international jet A-1 fuel) is the standard military fuel for all types of vehicles, including the U.S. Air Force aircraft inventory. As such, JP-8 presents the most common chemical exposure in the Air Force, particularly for flight and ground crew personnel during preflight operations and for maintenance personnel performing routine tasks. Personal exposure at an Air Force base occurs through occupational exposure for personnel involved with fuel and aircraft handling and/or through incidental exposure, primarily through inhalation of ambient fuel vapors. Because JP-8 is less volatile than its predecessor fuel (JP-4), contact with liquid fuel on skin and clothing may result in prolonged exposure. The slowly evaporating JP-8 fuel tends to linger on exposed personnel during their interaction with their previously unexposed colleagues. To begin to assess the relative exposures, we made ambient air measurements and used recently developed methods for collecting exhaled breath in special containers. We then analyzed for certain volatile marker compounds for JP-8, as well as for some aromatic hydrocarbons (especially benzene) that are related to long-term health risks. Ambient samples were collected by using compact, battery-operated, personal whole-air samplers that have recently been developed as commercial products; breath samples were collected using our single-breath canister method that uses 1-L canisters fitted with valves and small disposable breathing tubes. We collected breath samples from various groups of Air Force personnel and found a demonstrable JP-8 exposure for all subjects, ranging from slight elevations as compared to a control cohort to &gt; 100 [mutilpe] the control values. This work suggests that further studies should be performed on specific issues to obtain pertinent exposure data. The data can be applied to assessments of health outcomes and to recommendations for changes in the use of personal protective equipment that optimize risk reduction without undue impact on a mission.

Personal exposure to JP-8 jet fuel vapors and exhaust at air force bases.

JP-8 jet fuel (similar to commercial/international jet A-1 fuel) is the standard military fuel for all types of vehicles, including the U.S. Air Force aircraft inventory. As such, JP-8 presents the most common chemical exposure in the Air Force, particularly for flight and ground crew personnel during preflight operations and for maintenance personnel performing routine tasks. Personal exposure at an Air Force base occurs through occupational exposure for personnel involved with fuel and aircraft handling and/or through incidental exposure, primarily through inhalation of ambient fuel vapors. Because JP-8 is less volatile than its predecessor fuel (JP-4), contact with liquid fuel on skin and clothing may result in prolonged exposure. The slowly evaporating JP-8 fuel tends to linger on exposed personnel during their interaction with their previously unexposed colleagues. To begin to assess the relative exposures, we made ambient air measurements and used recently developed methods for collecting exhaled breath in special containers. We then analyzed for certain volatile marker compounds for JP-8, as well as for some aromatic hydrocarbons (especially benzene) that are related to long-term health risks. Ambient samples were collected by using compact, battery-operated, personal whole-air samplers that have recently been developed as commercial products; breath samples were collected using our single-breath canister method that uses 1-L canisters fitted with valves and small disposable breathing tubes. We collected breath samples from various groups of Air Force personnel and found a demonstrable JP-8 exposure for all subjects, ranging from slight elevations as compared to a control cohort to > 100 [mutilpe] the control values. This work suggests that further studies should be performed on specific issues to obtain pertinent exposure data. The data can be applied to assessments of health outcomes and to recommendations for changes in the use of personal protective equipment that optimize risk reduction without undue impact on a mission.

Simulated blood levels of CF3I in personnel exposed during its release from an F-15 jet engine nacelle and during intentional inhalation.

Of the agents under consideration for protecting unoccupied areas from fire, CF3I (trifluoroiodomethane) has physicochemical properties that give it potential as a "drop-in" replacement for halon 1301. One of the issues concerning the use of CF3I is the potential hazard to ground crews should an inadvertent discharge occur while workers are in or near an engine nacelle. A discharge test of CF3I was conducted on an F-15A jet to record CF3I concentration time histories at locations near the aircraft. The conditions of the discharges simulated an inadvertent ground discharge with the engine nacelle doors open and also with the doors closed. The use of three types of gas analysis instrumentation allowed gas sampling from several locations during the discharge tests. Concentrations measured at selected sensor locations were used as the input to a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model to simulate blood levels that would be attained by individuals inhaling CF3I at sensor locations. Blood levels reached during these exposures were compared with the blood level associated with the lowest observable adverse effect level (LOAEL) for cardiac sensitization to evaluate the possibility of safe egress. The highest blood concentrations simulated were twice the target blood concentration associated with cardiac sensitization. However, simulated blood concentrations of subjects who actually inhaled CF3I reached levels that were 100 times the target level without reported adverse effect. Thus, actual human data may supersede the use of the cardiac sensitization LOAEL obtained from animal studies.

»When we enter into my Father's spacecraft«. Cargoistic hopes and millenarian cosmologies in new religious UFO movements

Millenarian movements await an imminent, collective and ultimate liberation, usually (but not exclusively)within this world. This liberation implies the founding of a perfect age or pure country or kingdom, and the construction of a Homo Novus. In a similar way, the so-called Cargo-Cults of Melanesia or New Guinea relate to a dawning state of material, organisational and spiritual well-being, and the expected abundance of supernaturally acquired can be turned into the central characteristic of the manifestation of the Millennium (Trompf). In many contemporary New Religious Movements, apocalyptic interventions by aliens and UFOs form a central belief. Amidst hopes for a restitution of the lost paradise, one can also find expectations of the cargoist type: alien supplies and supernatural technologies, together with paranormal spiritual faculties like telepathy and bilocation, can exercise a strong exotic charm. The different expressions of such cargoistic hopes shed light on the underlying cosmological framework, which often incorporates basic patterns of the apocalyptic (pre-millennial or post-millennial) traditions of Christianity. On the one hand, there are UFO believers who expect an imminentsalvation within this world by means of an extraterrestrial transfer of technology and spirituality: millions of space ships descend, and is to be transformed, quickly, into a paradise beyond compare ... Heaven on Earth (The Ground Crew Project; cf. Ashtar Command, etc.). Only a short rapture or Big Beam into the flying saucers will be necessary to secure the earthly humans during the metamorphosis of Mother Earth. But finally, there will be an overwhelming physical and spiritual abundance on this precious intergalactic showcase.

Apollo 13 creativity: in-the-box innovation.

A study of the Apollo 13 mission, based on the themes showcased in the acclaimed 1995 film, reveals the grace under pressure that is the condition of optimal creativity. "Apollo 13 Creativity" is a cultural and creative problem-solving appreciation of the thinking style that made the Apollo mission succeed: creativity under severe limitations. Although creativity is often considered a "luxury good," of concern mainly for personal enrichment, the arts, and performance improvement, in life-or-death situations it is the critical pathway not only to success but to survival. In this case. the original plan for a moon landing had to be transformed within a matter of hours into a return to earth. By precluding failure as an option at the outset, both space and ground crews were forced to adopt a new perspective on their resources and options to solve for a successful landing. This now-classic problem provides a range of principles for creative practice and motivation applicable in any situation. The extreme situation makes these points dramatically.

A Survey for Mallard Pairs in the Atlantic Flyway

During 1989-92, spring surveys of randomly selected, 1-km2 plots, stratified by physiographic strata, were conducted in the Atlantic Flyway from New Hampshire to Virginia, to estimate mallard (Anas platy- rhynchos) pairs. All potential waterfowl habitat in each plot was checked by ground crews. The adjusted mean mallard pair estimate over the 4-year period was 300,849 (range 271,193-320,642, mean SE 22,455) for the region surveyed. Ground plot checks are a practical way to survey mallard pairs in the upper Atlantic Flyway. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 61(4):1191-1198

Evaluation of Visibility Correction Factors for Waterfowl Surveys in Wyoming

The waterfowl breeding population survey for Wyoming was redesigned and evaluated in 1993 and 1994. Ten regional strata were systematically sampled with aerial strip transects 400 m wide. Double sampling was employed to correct aerial counts for visibility bias, estimated from a small number of transects. Nine transects in 1993 and 13 in 1994 were surveyed both from the air and from the ground (truthing transects). Visibility correction factors (VCFs) were calculated as ratios of ground counts to air counts. Precision of VCFs was inadequate (CVs > 50%) in 1993. To increase precision of VCFs in 1994, truthing transects were subjectively placed in areas with more potential waterfowl habitat, and their number and average length were increased. These modifications improved the precision of VCFs (CV = 27.2% for mallard, Anas platyrhynchos), but waterfowl distributions and counts appear to be more variable in Wyoming than in the prairie potholes of northcentral North America. Violating assumptions of this double sampling scheme affects accuracy and precision of VCFs. Important assumptions are (1) air and ground crews survey the same waterfowl populations, and (2) truthing transects are representative of the other transects. Violations of the first assumption include deviations from intended flight paths and variability of flight altitudes on truthing transects. Flight path error was more than 30% in both years. Average altitudes on truthing transects had a range of 19 m in 1993 and 12 m in 1994. In 1994, the second assumption was violated because truthing transects were placed subjectively. Average flight altitudes were lower (P = 0.009) and density of all waterfowl greater (P = 0.002) on truthing transects than on the other transects ; and species compositions were not closely correlated (r 2 = 0.765) between truthing and other transects. Due to the variability of waterfowl distributions and the above-mentioned procedural problems, adequately precise and accurate VCFs might not be achievable or cost-effective in Wyoming with traditional aerial survey techniques.

Chapter 12 Crew Compatibility and Interaction

A crew of four (three males and one male) were isolated for 60 days in hyperbaric chambers at DLR, Cologne, Germany. The aim of the study was to investigate how group functioning, relations with ground control, and interaction between crew members would change during isolation. A broad array of methods was used, including analysis of communication, peer ratings, questionnaires, and a post-isolation interview. The main findings are: 1. Group functioning declined at three times, immediately before and after the start of isolation, and in weeks 2 and 5; 2. Conflicts were often focused on project management. 3. Crew members showed a marked tendency to deny team conflicts, making them vulnerable to "group think;" 4. Towards the end of isolation, social factors were given more importance than task-related factors; 5. Lasting antagonism between two of the male crew members were noted, which made one of them withdraw from interaction, while the other one--the most dominant crew member--developed an alliance with the Commander. Several findings in this study are consistent with our earlier results from the ISEMSI study. The existence of several interpersonal issues has been identified, which are also likely to occur during actual space missions. Many of the interpersonal problems could probably be prevented or reduced through behavioral and sensitivity training, composition of crews according to compatibility, and monitoring of group functioning during the flight. We suggest that future simulation studies should be directed towards gaining practical experience in how to influence interpersonal relations in a desirable way. The joint training of ground crew and chamber crew created good co-operation between the two crews, but the adjustment to management requires more experience and new training procedures. The lack of formalized rules caused serious frustrations and negative feelings in both crews towards project management. Data from management and principal investigators were not available, but we suggest that such information should be collected in future simulation studies.