Gross Margin Research Articles

PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS OF CATFISH PRODUCTION IN KANO METROPOLIS, KANO STATE, NIGERIA

Fish is an important dietary element and a major source of animal protein in human diet for many Nigerians. The demand for fish has been on the increase because of geometrical increase in human population, this has resulted to a significant gap created between fish demand and supply. It is obvious given the importance of fish production that efforts must be made to encourage entrepreneurs to go into the business. However, many have shown doubts on the productivity and profitability of fish production, particularly on a smallholder level. This study therefore, examines the profitability of catfish production in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. Two stage sampling procedure was employed to select respondents for the study. Primary data were collected with the use of well-structured questionnaire administered to 120 catfish producers. The tools of analysis employed were descriptive statistics, gross margin and net farm income. The study revealed that Majority of the producers (69%) are male. Furthermore, 85percent of the fish producers have attained post primary education. The gross margin (GM) was ₦657,420, while the enterprise profit which is the net farm income was estimated at ₦598,128 and 0.33 return to capital for the farmers. Some of the challenges confronting the respondents in their business includes high cost of feed, lack of government support and lack of training. Thus, there is a need for provision of training for higher level of productivity, subsidizing of inputs such as feed by the government and participation in cooperative societies by the fish farmers for financial and inputs assistance by relevant Non-Governmental Organizations.

Evaluation and use of recently introduced sheep breeds to Uruguay

Sheep numbers in Uruguay have declined over the last 30 years. In the north and northeast there are extensive wool and dual-purpose systems, respectively, where both wool and meat impact on income. In the south, small-scale family sheep meat production systems have flourished. In this thesis I report work pertaning to production systems in the south (1) and northeast (2) regions. Corriedale (C) is the predominant breed in the country. Milchschaf (M) has been disseminated in the south but C still prevails in the northeast. There is a paucity of rigorous evaluations of these breeds or alternatives that could be more profitable, such as Highlander (H) for the south and Dohne Merino (DM) for the northeast. I experimentally assessed: in 1), wool production, reproduction and growth in C, H and M, and in 2), wool quality and body traits in ewe hoggets from rotational crossbreeding between C and DM. In 1), wool production was better in C, but H and M outperformed C in live weight and reproductive performance. In 2), genotypes with greater proportions of DM produced lower fleece weight, and those with greater proportions of C produced coarser fibre diameter, with no differences in wool quality or morphological traits related to meat aptitude. Gross margins (GM) integrate physical performance with product values and costs, allowing monetary comparison between genotypes. I calculated GMs for a number of production and market scenarios. In 1), most often GM was greatest for H, followed by M. The differences in favor of H and M over C decreased when I considered higher feed requirements for H and M. The GM of H and M increased by assuming they were wool-less (the cost of harvesting exceeds the value of the wool produced). In 2), I considered low and high prices for wool of different fibre diameter. GM was greatest for ¾DM and ⅝DM at low prices, and for ¾DM and ½DM at high prices. C had the lowest GM in all scenarios. I recommend H for southern systems and research on hair sheep breeds. In extensive dual-purpose systems, rotational crossbreeding between C and DM allows for improved wool income without losing meat potential. I formulate recommendations about future genotype evaluations, integrating them with current within breed genetic evaluations.

Environmental viability and economic sustainability of tillage for wheat: Evidence from Croatia

A multidisciplinary field experiment was performed during three seasons for winter wheat in Croatia. The intention of this study was to examine and diagnose the effect of Tillage Systems (TS) on soil chemical properties (soil acidity, phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter content) as well as the outcome of economic indicators such as Gross Margin (GM), Rate of Profitability (ROP), cost-effectiveness (E) and productivity (P). TS were CT - plowing up to 30 cm depth; DT - disking up to 8-12 cm depth; LT - loosening up to 35 cm depth; NT - no-tillage. The experimental design was a randomised block design in four repetitions, where the basic TS plot was 540 m2. Soil sampling for 0-30 cm soil layer was done prior to setting up the experiment and after three seasons, a total of 320 soil samples and chemical analyses were performed according to standard pedological procedures. Economic indicators are calculated using economic equations and standards and statistical analysis was performed with SAS 9.3 and Microsoft Excel 2016. Generated results point that on systems with shallower tillage or no- tillage expressed accumulation of phosphorus and potassium appeared with distinct vertical stratification. At the same time, these TS ensured soil organic matter and soil fertility preservation. From the aspect of economic calculations, LT assigned the prime economic results. The ROP was in order CT (32.67%) < DT (37.39%) < LT (40.31%) < NT (42.29%). The same order was established for E, namely, CT (1.33) < DT (1.37%) < LT (1.40%) < NT (1.42%). NT established the best P because of the lowest costs of production, but due to significantly lower yield, NT has limited adoption in practice. The conservable and viable agricultural production by intermediation of reduced soil tillage systems has its capabilities and potency, firstly ecological, through providing soil degradation, and then economical by potentiating economic sustainability and financial efficiency of agricultural production.

PERFORMANCE OF CATFISH (CLARIASGARIEPINUS) FARMING IN IKORODU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA

Background: In a growing nation like Nigeria, where millions of its teeming people suffer from malnutrition, the need for proper nutrition is especially important. Nigerians consume a lot of fish, with a 3.6 million metric ton annual demand. Yet, there is a national demand-supply mismatch of 2.5 million metric tons, and imports are used to make up the difference at a cost of about 625 million US dollars annually. Hence, the demand-supply gap can be effectively closed by starting widespread small- and large-scale fish production.Objective: The study examined the Per for mance of catfish, Clarias gariepinus farming in Ikorodu Local Government area, Lagos State, Nigeria.Methods: 50 randomly selected far mer s from the Ikorodu LGA completed a standardized questionnaire to gather the primary data for the analysis. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and an assessment of net farm revenue.Results: The results of the budgetary analysis showed that the total cost (TC) of ₦4,234,313 ($9,993.27) was incurred, total revenue (TR) of ₦4,953,125 ($11,689.71) and a returning gross margin (GM) of ₦787,312.50 ($1,858.11) were attained. The benefit-cost ratio was 1.17, the rate of return on investment was 0.17, the gross revenue ratio was 0.16 and an operating ratio of 0.84. This indicates that catfish farming is marginally profitable due to the high cost of fish feed which was 84 % of the total cost of production in the study area

Assessment of profit efficiency of smallholder potato farmers in Nakuru County, Kenya

AbstractThe importance of potato (Solanum tuberosum L) production to the country's economic growth is quite clear, but little is known about its profitability and determinants. The current potato yields of smallholder farmers are <10 t/ha, against 40 t/ha achievable under optimum utilization of resources and recommended agronomic practices. The objective of the study was to assess the gross margin (GM) of smallholder potato farmers and estimate their profit efficiency level and influencing factors. A cross‐sectional research design and multistage sampling technique were used to obtain a sample of 277 respondents for the study. Results indicated an average GM of Ksh 57,438 per ha per season, implying that potato farming is a lucrative enterprise. Despite this, the study further showed that there are profit inefficiencies in its production process. The average profit efficiency recorded was 43.5%, implying that potato farmers can potentially increase their profits up to 56.5%. Profit efficiency was found to increase significantly with access to extension and credit services, education level, non‐farm income, and membership in farmer groups, while decreasing significantly with farmer age. Apart from optimizing the use of farm inputs, the profit efficiency of smallholder potato farmers can thus be improved by enhancing farmer education and extension service delivery, formulating favorable credit strategies that will make loan acquisition easier for potato farmers, and encouraging farmers to join farmer groups in order to benefit from economies of scale.

Pig farming profitability and constraints in smallholder households in Rwanda: a case study of Musanze district.

The increasing human population risks food insecurity especially food of animal origin. Pig plays an important role in household income in all production. The main aim of this study was to analyze the pig farming profitability and constraints in smallholder households in Rwanda. A multistage sampling technique was employed for the success of the research. The study was carried out in five sectors of Musnze district. A purposive sampling technique was used to select Musanze district and five sectors. However, a random sampling method was used to have a sample size of 120 pig farmers’ respondents. The cost and returns associated with pig farming production were carried out to determine the profitability of pig production while a stochastic frontier production function was used to determine factors influencing pig farming in small householders using STATA. The findings indicated that men are the majority of the respondents in pig farming production in the study area. The findings of the regression analysis indicated that five factors namely education level, market availability, off-farm generation, feed availability, and access to veterinary services were positive, and statistically significant at P ≤ 0.01 level of probability and influenced pig farming in the study area. The findings also indicated that the Total Revenue (TR), Total Cost (TC), Gross Margin (GM), and Net Farm Income (NFI) were statistically significant at (p < 0.01). The research findings indicated that pig farming is a profitable business in the study area. The result of regression analysis also indicated that the three factors namely income generation, employment opportunities, and new job creation had positive and statistically significant impacts on pig farming in the study area at P ≤ 0.01 level of probability. The findings of this study revealed that the most common constraints for pig farming in smallholder households were the high cost of feeds, inadequate initial capital, feeds sacristy and quality, lack of conservation facilities, pests, and diseases outbreaks, high cost of piglets, lack of farming information, and poor housing. Despite the constraints indicated by different respondents in the study area. Pig farming is an economically profitable business in the study area and it is capable of creating new jobs, enhancing employment opportunities, generating income, and clearly improving the standard livelihood of farmers. Based on the findings of the study, it has been recommended to promote interventions that can help provide initial start-up capital for farmers or marketing groups to help kick-start their farming operations; and to train and equip pig farmers and veterinaries in new technologies and innovations. Promote the analysis of profitability, opportunities, and constraints along the pig value chain as well as to support and improve the underlying business progress or stunting well as to make a good decision.

Assessing the influence of artisanal fishing on income and livelihood of the coastal communities in Tanzania: the case of Mkinga district, Tanga region

This study unveiled the influence of artisanal fishing on a coastal community's income and livelihood in the Mkinga District, Tanga region. Particularly, it seeks to: determine fish catch and gross margins across, investigate the influence of fish income on the households total incomes, and factors affecting income earnings in the marketing chain. The study used interviews and focus group discussions on obtaining primary data. Simultaneously, the internet, government documentation units at different levels were the sources of secondary data. It involved a total of 125 randomly selected respondents. Moreover, Gross Margin (GM), Marketing Margin (MG), and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics 25) were employed for analysis.Results show the socio-economic status of the respondents was generally poor. The majority of fishers have low education levels (44%), and they depend on fishing for livelihoods. Furthermore, compared to other groups computation of gross margins revealed that artisanal fishers earned the lowest (12.2%) with a gross margin of T.shs 443.6. Despite the lowest gross margin earning than other players, the fish income contributes highly (83.8%) to the total household incomes. Therefore, improvement in the fisheries sector results has a high impact on artisanal fishers' wellbeing. Moreover, factors affecting their income include lack of credit to purchase modern fishing and storage equipment, high cost of fishing gear, poor roads, low bargaining power, inadequate extension services, and lack of market information. Hence, the study recommends the government address observed constraining factors affecting artisanal fishers' incomes to increase their incomes

Aiming at low nitrogen leaching diets based on nitrogen fertilizer regulatory policy: A regional bio-economic assessment of the Zayandeh-Rud river basin-Iran

Negative environmental impacts of nitrogen (N) intensive diets have triggered global debates on sustainable nitrogen management. Solutions such as dietary transitions, cropland reallocation and N Regulatory Policy (NRP) have been proposed to mitigate the adverse environmental impacts of N use in food production. However, there is still insufficient understanding of how NRPs could be designed to minimize negative environmental impact across diverse agro-ecological zones without sacrificing human dietary requirements. To increase this understanding, we evaluated the consequences of three NRP scenarios (low, moderate, and high N fertilizer rates) on the amount of livestock and non-livestock diet components as well as the associated N leaching and farmers' Gross Margin (GM) by optimizing the allocation of cropland between food and feed crops. We developed a bio-economic Interval Fuzzy Multi-Objective Programming (bio-economic IFMOP) model for the Zayandeh-Rud river basin, Iran, and a procedure that accounts for annual average availability of calories per capita, calorie sources from livestock and non-livestock components of three dietary preferences, and inequality in calorie distribution. The interaction among soil, climate and weather variability and NRPs across nine sub-regions of the case study region was handled by crop yield simulation using the DSSAT software. The solution of farmers' GM, derived from the optimization problem across possibilities of water fluctuations, was assessed to determine the uncertainty in GM. We also introduced an N leaching per Block of Distributed Calories (BDC) criterion based on solutions of supplied calories and associated N leaching. The upper bound of the moderate NRP scenario resulted in the smallest N leaching per BDC. This corresponded to ∼0.34, ∼0.34, ∼3.77 and 19.00 million BDC of meat, dairy, wheat and potato, respectively. Also, the upper bound of this scenario satisfied the lowest instability in farmers’ GM against water fluctuation compared with low and high NRP scenarios. The affordable volume of N leaching per BDC varied across sub-regions between [1.53,3.49], [1.52,3.33], [0.76,0.99] and [0.05,0.08] kg for meat, dairy, wheat and potato, respectively. Our results highlighted both optimistic and pessimistic prospects of producing low N leaching diets. The approach of this study could also be applied to other regions and countries.

Sustainability Indicators of Kalang Buffalo Production Systems in Swamp Ecosystems in South Kalimantan

This study aims to identify problems, identify and analyze stakeholders and determine indicators (qualitative and quantitative) for the sustainability of kalang buffalo production systems in swamp ecosystems in South Kalimantan. The kalang buffalo is a type of mud buffalo that is reared using the kalang system. In the local language, kalang is an enclosure built in the middle of swamp waters. This study is expected to be a source of information for academics, farmers, communities and policymakers in South Kalimantan Province regarding the strategic function of Kalang buffalo for the people of South Kalimantan. Data collection was done by describing the problem and determining relevant stakeholders. The literature study was conducted with expert discussion. FGDs were also conducted to explore important issues, followed by SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis and to determine relevant issues. Situation analysis and secondary data showed that the Kalang buffalo population is declining. Stakeholder identification identified the central and local governments as primary stakeholders; secondary stakeholders were scientists/academics, butchers, sellers, and consumers. The primary stakeholders selected were buffalo farmers, central and local governments, while secondary stakeholders consisted of scientists/academics, butchers, farmer sellers, and consumers. The selected indicators on the EES issue are economic indicators such as gross margin (GM), body weight, weaning weight, and reproduction (calf crop (%)); environmental indicators such as total grazing land use and waste disposal; and social indicators such total of buffalo, feeding procedures, mating system, cages, record keeping, time allocation for maintenance, social status and land use conflicts.

Farm level bio-economic modelling of aquatic animal disease and health interventions

A farm level bio-economic model, for aquatic animal production, of the relationships between inputs (e.g. purchased animals), outputs (e.g. harvested animals) and gross margin (GM) was developed to assess ex-ante the economics of disease and animal health interventions. Feed costs were calculated from estimates of food conversion ratio (FCR), animals harvested and mortality. The model was applied to a typical grow-out rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farm on Lake Titicaca, Peru and a typical shrimp (Paenus vannamei) farm in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. The model was used in two analyses. Firstly, an approach to assess the burden of disease developed by the Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) project was adopted. Output under conditions of ‘ideal health’ was estimated by reducing mortality to zero and removing health costs. GM in both systems increased by approximately 25% when production was kept constant (and stocking rates reduced) and more than doubled if production was allowed to rise (and initial stocking increased). The increase in GM under conditions of ideal compared with current production provided an estimate of the maximum possible benefit from improved health management. Secondly, break-even analysis was used to assess the economics of vaccination against infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) vaccine (rainbow trout - RBT) and probiotics (shrimp). If initial stocking was kept constant, and production allowed to rise, break-even points for the intervention (when GM was the same with and without the intervention) were achieved when mortality was reduced by 16% in RBT fry and juvenile and 28% in shrimp. If production was kept constant and benefit realised by reduced initial stocking, the break-even point was achieved for i) vaccination of RBT when mortality in fry and juveniles was reduced by 39%, and ii) probiotics in shrimp production when there was a 15% reduction in mortality (nursery and grow-out), 10% increase in shrimp weight at harvest and 10% improvement in FCR. The results demonstrate how relatively simple models, parameterised with basic farm production data, can assess the burden of disease and quantify ex-ante the potential benefit of interventions. In the absence of trial data, these analyses support decision-making by farmers. The models can be adapted for many aquaculture systems. Farm level results can be extrapolated to estimate disease burden, and benefits of interventions, at regional or national level and thus support informed decision-making and allocation of resources to health management.

Crop diversification practices in Europe: an economic cross-case study comparison

Crop diversification practices (CDPs) are alternative strategies aimed to achieve sustainable cropping systems and food production overcoming the agro-environmental impacts of conventional cropping systems such as monoculture. Thus, this paper aims to improve the knowledge of implementing CDPs in different European pedoclimatic regions by assessing the economic performance at the farm level. CDPs are compared with conventional cropping systems and clustered in terms of their gross margin (GM) results and variations. Farm-level assessment shows that CDPs provide positive economic results, representing an adaptive management strategy for ecological transition, without compromising economic sustainability. Particularly, the main findings show that (1) the impact of diversification depends more on crop type than on the selected CDPs, (2) most farms exhibited a low GM with low economic impact, and (3) there is a great likelihood that the CDPs facilitate the buildup of more resilient farming systems.

An Analysis of Yam Flour Marketing in Olorunda Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria

Yam flour marketing is one of the Agribusiness ventures undertaken mainly by women (100%) in the study area. The business was profitable in that the Gross Margin (GM) of N 199,312.84 and the Marketing Margin of (MM) of N 19,575 were high and appreciable per caput. The marketers were in one or the other in a married state and no single woman was involved. They had a relatively large family size (6-10 members) and had at least one form of education. They were of mixed religion and funded their business mainly through cooperatives and daily contributions. They were all retailers and they mostly sold white yam flour (90%). It was revealed that Loan, Cost of Yam flour, Cost of Transportation and The total amount sold were the factors influencing profitability of Yam flour marketing in the study area. While Loan and Total amount sold had positive coefficients and were statistically significant at 10% and 1% respectively, Cost of Yam flour and Cost of Transportation impacted negatively on profitability and they were statistically significant at 5% and 1% respectively.

Evaluation of water-energy-food-environment-agricultural economic growth nexus integrated approach to achieve sustainable production.

Today, growing the production of the agricultural sector in order to meet the increasing demand of food is happening through excessive consumption of water resources, energy, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, especially in developing countries. Therefore, the present study aims to design a new approach for sustainable management of resources and realization of clean production in the agricultural sector. In order to design the new approach of the present study, the integration of two concepts of water-energy-food (WEF) nexus and decoupling pollution-agricultural growth (DEC) was used. The proposed approach is modeled through the multi-objective programming model by optimizing the WEF and DEC indices, which is the first research effort in this field. In this regard, the performance of this approach was evaluated in Jiroft County in Kerman province, Iran. The results of the study showed that the consumption of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the optimal pattern with the simultaneous provision of WEF and gross margin (GM) goals (optimal 1) is about 110 kg and 0.19 l per hectare, respectively, more than the proposed pattern (optimal 3). On the other hand, the consumption of water and energy resources in the optimal pattern with the simultaneous provision of DEC and GM goals (optimal 2) is about 8785 cubic meters and 1108 MJ per hectare more than the proposed pattern (optimal 3), respectively. Therefore, this approach, due to the simultaneous integration of two concepts of sustainable development in the agricultural sector, can overcome the weakness of the WEF nexus in not paying attention to the issues of environmental pollution affected by the use of chemical inputs and the weakness of separating pollution-agricultural growth in not paying attention to the management of water and energy resources in the agricultural sector.

Cost Benefit Analysis of Dairy Farming in South West Nigeria

The dairy sector performs a fundamental role in daily income, self-sufficiency, and food security among dairy farming households. Therefore, this study conducted a cost-benefit analysis of dairy production in South West Nigeria. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire from 150 dairy farmers selected through a multistage sampling method. Descriptive statistics and budgetary techniques were the analytical tools employed. The majority (60.67%) of the farmers were within active and productive age. Most (58.67%) were male, and the majority (92.91%) were married. Most (45.45%) had primary education. The total revenue (TR) realized from dairy farming was ₦493,752.00 per annum. On the other hand, the total fixed cost (TFC) incurred was ₦ 44,799.00. The total variable cost (TVC), the total cost (TC), The gross margin (GM) and the net farm income (NFI) are; ₦229,142.00, ₦ 273,941.00, ₦264,610.43 and ₦219,811.43 respectively. Furthermore, the rate of return on investment (RORI) was ₦0.80, which implies that on every one naira invested, a return of ₦1.80 was realized with a profit of N0.80. Dairy farming is profitable, given the positive values of the indices. However, genetically improved breeds, proper orientation and support services for dairy farms are strongly advocated for better performance and yield.

How will future climates in the Pakistani Punjab rice-wheat system affect the optimal agronomic settings, and can adaptation offset losses?

Pakistan is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world to future climatic changes, already with significant water and food sustainability issues. Rice and wheat production in the Pakistani Punjab is central to national food security and hence of particular concern. We sought to understand what optimal rice-wheat (RW) farmer agronomic practices (those which maximise RW system gross margins (GM) and irrigated water productivity (WPi)) look like under each of 6 projected future climate change scenarios for mid-century (2050). We also examined the impact on 2050 RW production if current farmer practices remained unchanged, to gauge the potential benefits of the optimal adaptations. Cropping systems simulation with a validated model (APSIM) enabled analysis of a broad range of current management practice modifications (6 agronomic management settings parameters, including crop sowing dates, varieties, fertiliser rates, and deficit irrigation strategies) in a large Monte-Carlo Matrix (96,768 elements) for the highest-yielding district in the Punjab, Gujranwala. We evaluated annual crop production, GM, WPi, nitrate leaching, and total system evapotranspiration (ET) for all combinations on an annual basis over a 31-year simulation period for each future climate scenario (as well as the historical record) seeking optimal parameter combinations within each. If current farmer practices were to remain unchanged into the future, we found reductions in farmer GM’s by 35–50% by 2050, with WPi decreasing even further (40–60%). Adaptation of current RW management practices is therefore essential. By adopting optimal practices now (derived using the historical climate record) we found that farmers also place themselves well for future climates and our study suggests they can maintain or maybe even increase current GM’s by 5–30% (depending on climate scenario) through smart adaptation. The best agronomic practices in 2050 look almost indistinguishable from the best agronomic practices now, regardless of future climate scenario chosen. However, compared with a hypothetical farmer operating under optimal practices now, our study suggests that a farmer in 2050 will earn considerably less, with gross margins under optimal practices falling by 25–40%, depending on which future climate scenario is considered. Declines are largely due to falling rice yields under future conditions (20–50% across examined climate scenarios), with wheat yields likely to be maintained or even slightly increased. Our study also indicated an increase in ET (10–15%) across all RW practices (regardless of future climate scenario and despite projections for generally reduced rainfall, runoff and drainage), compared with historical conditions. Our study suggests a rice varietal improvement need for heat tolerance, but that current wheat varieties are suitable to 2050.

Modelling the long-term consequences of implementing hormone-free reproductive management on the sustainability of a dairy sheep farm

Livestock production systems are strongly influenced by societal constraints which induce changes in their overall chain value organization. In dairy sheep farming, practices such as the male effect (ME) supported by new precision tools (heat detector) can be used to stop the use of hormonal treatments (HT) for heat induction and synchronization. However, the effectiveness of these “hormone-free” (HF) methods for managing ewes’ reproduction remains more uncertain than that of HT. Thus, introduction of HF practices in farms currently managed with HT could imply collateral impacts on the overall functioning of the production system and affect its long-term sustainability. In this work, a new multi-agent model (called REPRIN'OV) was designed to simulate consequences of introducing a HF reproduction management on a series of biotechnical, economic and environmental farm performance indicators, including farmer workload. Three reproduction management scenarios were simulated over five consecutive years for the case study of a French dairy sheep farm considered as conventional (i.e. using HT for reproduction management). They were defined as: use of HTs and insemination (HAI); no use of HTs while preserving insemination practice (HFAI); no use of HTs and direct mating only (i.e., no insemination; HFM). Results confirm that implementing HF reproductive management without accompanying it with further changes in farm management, could negatively impact several indicators of the farm sustainability in the medium and long-term. Indeed, the HF scenarios resulted in overall lower farm biotechnical performances (e.g., −4% for the fertility rate; P < 0.05) due to a more variable heat induction. An increase in farmer's workload during the lambing period (+34% and +33% of h/L of milk in HFAI and HFM, respectively; P < 0.05) was also observed, mainly due to more staggered lambing periods. As for the simulated environmental indicators, they were increased, mostly due to the reduction of the total milk production in HF’s (e.g., +6% of farm methane emissions per L of milk for both HFAI and HFM; P < 0.05). Nevertheless, positive outcomes were also simulated in the HFs as ewes lambing peaks were lower than in HAI suggesting, e.g., a possibility to improve ewes and lamb surveillance during lambing. HF scenarios also led to higher gross margin (GM) per litre of milk produced because no HT was used, reducing the production costs compare to HAI. In addition, implementing insemination in HFAI improved farm milk production and quality (i.e., fat and protein content), which resulted in improved total GM compared to HFM. Still, the reduction in the total milk production in HFs was too important compared with the improvement of the GM per litre, resulting in a reduced total GM in these scenarios (-4% and −5% in HFAI and HFM, respectively; P < 0.05). Overall, simulation results showed that to warrant sustainable introduction of HF strategies (including ME), new frameworks in the organization of key operations at the farm level should be explored (e.g., extending reproduction or milking periods length) and trade-offs should be discussed, considering all involved stakeholders of the dairy sheep industry and the chain’s value requirements. The REPRIN’OV model, may provide an effective tool to simulate the collateral impacts of establishing HF reproductive management and could be used as a decision support system to accompany the ambitious transition towards a HF dairy sheep industry in Europe and beyond.

What are the best pasture improvement options for different South Island hill and high-country environments?

A range of options exist to improve pasture in the South Island hill and high country. Pasture yield and the cost of seed, lime and fertiliser from 55 trial sites were used to calculate partial gross margins (GM) for a range of improvements on different slopes and aspects. On drillable land, for average rainfall &lt;500 mm/yr, pastures should be based on subterranean clover or perennial lupins. Lucerne can be used where root growth is not limited by soil depth. At 500-750 mm/yr rainfall, lucerne and perennial lupins, with subterranean or Caucasian clover, are viable. Where rainfall is &gt;750 mm, lucerne and Caucasian, white and red clover can be sown. At similar rainfall, soil moisture is more limited on non-drillable hill compared with drillable land, and aspect must be considered. At &lt;750 mm/yr on sunny aspects, clover, e.g., subterranean or balansa,are the best options, and shady areas can be improved with subterranean clover. Late winter application of 30- 50 kg/ha nitrogen can be used on shady aspects with less than 750 /yr rainfall or sunny aspects with higher rainfall. For &gt;750 mm/yr rainfall on shady aspects, pasture should be managed to maximise legume content, and over-sowing white clover should be considered.

A comparative techno-economic analysis of combined oil and power production from pyrolysis and co-pyrolysis plants utilizing rice straw and scrap rubber tires

In this study, three pyrolysis and co-pyrolysis plants processing rice straw (RS) and scrap rubber tire (SRT) to produce oil and power (i.e., electricity) at 30 t/hr capacity are simulated using SuperPro Designer software. The objective of the study is to comparatively evaluate the techno-economic performance of hypothetical (co-)pyrolysis plants at commercial scale. The RS production is estimated in 36 districts of Punjab, Pakistan through GIS mapping and the location and capacity of the plants are selected accordingly. The RS plant has the lowest capital and annual operating costs of $53.70 million and $43.70 million, respectively however, it is not economically feasible under current conditions due to its low quantity and quality of the produced oil. The base cases of SRT and co-feed (RS and SRT) plants are found to be viable with capital costs of $66.90 million and $68.30 million, and annual operating costs of $77.20 million and $70.30 million respectively. The co-pyrolysis plant produces the highest oil (main product) yield of 74 kilotons annually and power of 4801 KWe with the lowest unit production cost of $950/tonne. Consequently, the co-pyrolysis plant offers the highest economic performance with $35.55 million of net present value (NPV) estimated at a discount rate of 15% over 20 years of plant life. The payback period (PBT), internal rate of return (IRR) and gross margin (GM) are 5.08 years, 34.67% and 21.35% respectively. Sensitivity analysis suggests that the NPV is sensitive to the oil selling price, feedstock cost, and capital investment for all plants. Moreover, economy of scale analysis quantified the effects of different processing capacities on the economic metrics such as NPV, PBT, capital cost, and operating cost.

DO CLUSTER FARMING PRACTICES IMPROVE PROFITABILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY INDICES OF SMALLHOLDER RICE FARMERS? EVIDENCE FROM BORNO STATE, NIGERIA

The study examined the comparative analysis of technical efficiency of cluster and non-cluster rice farming in Borno state, Nigeria. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaire administered to 232 farmers comprising of 93 clustering and 139 non-clustering rice farmers in Borno State, Nigeria. Data were subjected to analytical techniques that included descriptive statistics, gross margin, t-test and stochastic frontier production function (SFPF). Cluster rice farming enterprise per hectare was more profitable by producing a gross margin (GM) of 196,020.62/ha thus returning N1.72 on every N1.00 invested as compared to non-cluster farming which produced a GM of 99,619.32/ha and thus had a return of N0.96 on every N1.00 invested. The SFPF revealed an average technical efficiency (TE) of 0.76 for cluster farming was higher than 0.58 for non-cluster farmers. Hence, cluster rice farming was more technically efficient compared to non-cluster rice farming. The determining factors of TE in cluster farming include seed (-0.49), fertilizer (0.242), agro-chemicals (0.341) and labour (0.747) compared to non-cluster which included fertilizer (0.207), agro-chemicals (-0.291) and labour (0.668). Inefficiency variables were insignificant in cluster farming while household members active in farming (0.811), years of farming experience (-0.226), and amount of credit utilized (0.5e-4) were statistically significant in non-cluster farming. Insecurity, pest infestation and shortage of water were critical production constraints faced by cluster farmers compared to non-cluster farmers faced with constraints such as shortage of water, insecurity and flooding. Non-clustering farmers should adopt production cluster farming to boost their profit, increase their efficiency and take advantage of the enormous services attributed to working in groups.

PRODUCTIVITY OF MAIZE/COWPEA MIXED-INTERCROPPING AS INFLUENCED BY POULTRY MANURE, NITROGEN MANAGEMENT AND COWPEA VARIETIES IN SAMARU

The study assessed the profitability of maize/cowpea intercropping in Samaru. The data was obtained from a field research carried out in the Research and Teaching farm of the Institute for Agricultural Research, Samaru, Zaria, during the 2018 and 2019 cropping seasons. The treatment consisted of three rates of poultry manure (0, 3 and 6 tons/ha), two ways of split N application to maize (two split dose and three split dose), and two cowpea genotypes arranged in a split plot design replicated four times. Results from the research showed that both poultry manure and triple split N dosage application significantly increased maize and cowpea yield in both years; with best economic results obtained with the application of 3 tons ha-1 of poultry manure. Assessment of the suitability of the intercropping system as defined by Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) and Relative Yield (RY) showed that higher yields were obtained from the intercrop compared to the sole as reflected in the LER values being more than one (1) units. Application of 3 tons ha-1 of poultry manure gave the highest gross margin (GM) with a corresponding return on investment (ROI) of 59% indicating that for every naira invested in the venture (ie 3 tons ha-1), five (5) naira eighty nine kobo (5.89) profit was realized. Research therefore recommended the application of 3 tons ha-1 of poultry manure in addition to double split of 45 kg ha-1 of nitrogen fertilizer at 2 and 4 WAS to achieve maximum economics benefits of maize-cowpea intercropping system in Savanna Alfisols