Ground Stone Research Articles

Controlled ballistics tests of ground, percussion-flaked, and pressure-flaked projectile point impact durability: Implications for archaeological method and theory

Ground stone projectile points can be found throughout the global archaeological record, but why they were selected for by prehistoric foragers has received little attention. Additionally, modern archaeological experiments have increasingly used ground points in lieu of knapped ones. Here, we present an experiment testing whether there is a difference between ground, percussion flaked, and pressure flaked points in terms of impact durability. Our three groups were similar in form, raw material, and hafting, only differing in their production. Controlled ballistics tests demonstrated that ground stone points did not break at a different rate than either the percussion flaked or pressure flaked points, nor was post-firing point length (as a percentage of original point length) different. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that impact durability on its own was not likely a motivating factor for forager selection of grinding versus knapping. Instead, researchers should look to other factors, such as skill, demography, time budgets, or raw material selection to explain the emergence of ground stone points in particular contexts. Given our null results, our test also supports the use of ground stone points in modern archaeological experiments.

A Study on the trade between Yeongnam and Northwestern Kyushu coastal regions: based on the aspect of fishing tools

The trade between Yeongnam and Northwestern Kyushu coastal regions (YNKR) had occurred around the Korea Straits and could be understood as an exchange between fishermen of the two regions in the nature of costal regions. In this study, I examine the trade based on fishing tools in accordance with the characteristics of the two regions sharing the common lifestyle and fisheries. The kinds of fishing tools can be divided into harpoons and fish hooks. The harpoons can be divided into stone and bone types depending on raw materials, and stationary and separable types on using method, having subdivisions. The fish hooks can be divided into composite, singular, and opposite T-shaped types. These tools are categorized into three based on the aspect to the two regions: high similarity, high difference, and different composition. The fishing tools from the both regions are similar in broader perspective but they are also very different in details at the same time, as a result of selective acceptance of shared information within common concept as tools, rather than trade and exchange of actual tools. The chronology of YNKR fishing tools has three phases. In the I phase, the Yeongnam region is dominated by ground stone artifacts and bone harpoons by influence of the East Sea region and tradition of common knapped stone artifacts. In terms of Northwestern Kyushu region, only knapped fishing tools has been found for the I phase, so it is assumed that the knapped stone artifacts tradition is popular in that region. In the II phase, the diversification of subsistance is conspicuous related to propagation of the early agriculture in the Yeongnam region, and harpoons and hooks are only found from certain sites such as Dongsam-dong and Yokji-do. Unlike the Iphase, the ground stone spear shaped harpoons disappear, and knapped stone spear shaped harpoons become thinner. When it comes to the Northwestern Kyushu region, knapped stone fishing tools has been continuously used in broaden area. In addition, obsidian module harpoon, composite hook, and singular hook are started to be used. The III phase in Yeongnam region, the aspect of fisheries considerably declines according to the social aspect of south of Korean Peninsula such as increased mobility, demolition of villages, and simplification of tools. On the other hand, Northwestern Kyushu region has the largest range of sites as well as shows a dramatic increase in the number of fishing tools. In addition, so-called ‘Northwestern Kyushu fishing culture’ represented by the combination of obsidian module harpoon and composite fish hook is completed. In summary, there is active trade between YNKR, and the routes are multilinear in the I phase. In the II phase, the route becomes unilinear, and it is centered around specific areas such as Dongsam-dong and Yokji-do, which strengthen fisheries. In the III phase, there are few voyages from Yeongnam to Kyushe, while the opposite route is busy. These aspects appear to be related to overall cultural transition, according to the environmental and cultural situation of the two regions, in addition to the relationship with adjacent regions.

RESIDUE ANALYSIS OF GRINDING STONES FROM CHALCOLITHIC GÜLPINAR

This study presents the preliminary results of residue analysis of grinding stones recovered from the Early Chalcolithic 2 and Middle Chalcolithic period settlements (Gülpınar II and Gülpınar III) in the Sanctuary of Apollo Smintheus (Smintheion), located in the southwestern corner of the modern Biga Peninsula (Ancient Troad) in north-western Anatolia. The Early Chalcolithic 2 period settlement at Gülpınar II has been dated to 5320-4940 BC, while the Middle Chalcolithic period settlement at Gülpınar III superimposing it has radiocarbon dates ranging between 4930 and 4450 BC. Excavations at Chalcolithic Gülpınar between 2004 and 2014 revealed a total of 453 ground stone tools. This work in this context residue analyze of total of 28 grinding stones that were uncovered from these two Early Chalcolithic 2 and Middle Chalcolithic cultural levels. Chemical analysis of residue on stone tools has become a common research technique used in archaeology science. Chemical residues in and on the working surface of used grinding tools lead us to consider the context of the tool usage. The widely-used Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) method was selected for analyses of the grinding stones from Chalcolithic Gülpınar. The chemical analysis and preliminary results obtained from Gülpınar samples are outlined in this study. Results show evidence of the distinctive lipid organic residues pentacosane and heptacosane as minor and trace constituents in some of the essential oils of edible crops and the major fatty acids of octadecanoic (stearic) and palmitic (oleic). Palmitic acid is also a major component of the oil found in dairy products and abundant in animal fat. These results may contribute to approaches that aim to explain how prehistoric societies carried out processing of organic and inorganic raw materials.

Breaking the Mold of Natufian Basalt Mortars: Experimental Production and Archeological Implications

This paper presents an experimental study on the production of basalt mortars, common at Levantine Natufian sites (15,000–11,500 cal. BP). An increase in the gathering and processing of plant foods is among the Natufian cultural innovations preceding the Neolithic agricultural revolution, as documented in “agricultural” tools such as sickle blades and ground stone tools (GST). Studies of Natufian GST have focused on their typology and function; production methods are rarely discussed. We present 15 systematic experiments focusing on two methods—drilling and carving—and using a variety of techniques (bow/twist/pump/hand drilling, pecking, and battering) and tools. Our results demonstrate that drilling techniques are efficient only in the initial stages of depression preparation and only for a limited duration. Pecking and battering with a hand-held basalt chisel was found to be the preferable production method, allowing for longer, continuous working time, and producing deeper and larger depressions than other techniques. In addition, pecking and battering makes it possible to produce a complete mortar—from the initial depression to modification of the interior and exterior faces. We suggest that producing a Natufian basalt mortar takes only 5 h and produces specific waste products, and that such repetitive work causes severe pain, particularly to the elbow and palm of the working hand, which may be associated with the variety of physical deformations reported for male Natufian and Neolithic populations.

Assessment of Metals Contamination Levels In Wheat, Maize and Beans Processed With Four Different Grinding Tools Using XRF

The levels of some metals contaminants in wheat, maize and beans processed with four different grinding tools namely; hand grinder (HG), wooden mortar (WM), grinding stone (GS) and domestic blender (DB) were investigated. The grains were purchased from a municipal market in Port Harcourt and analyzed for Cr, Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn,Pb, Cd, Si and Al using X-ray fluorescence (XRF). The results obtained showed that samples ground with grinding stone had the highest concentrations of most of the metals followed by the hand grinder in the order of grinding stone >hand grinder> wooden mortar > domestic blender. Out of the nine metals and two metalloids investigated Co, Cd and Pb were below detection levels. However, Co was detected in beans only. Si was detected only in samples ground with grinding stone. V, Mo, W, Sn and Sb were found to be present in these samples and their concentrations were high in all three grains processed using the four tools. These high concentrations of Sn and Sb are a source of concern.XRF technique has been successfully employed in the evaluation of the concentrations of some metals and metalloids in wheat, maize and beans.

Ground stone industry from Pericei-Keller tag. A secondary production centre?

This article analyses ground stone discoveries from the late neolithic site of Pericei located in north-west of Romania, in Șimleu Depression. Combined characteristics of chisels and adzes in working process are discussed along with their context, especially those connected to stone working: the layer, dwellings and pebble agglomerations. We conclude that Pericei was a production center for stone chisels, appeared to supply the demand that until then was satisfied by Suplac/Porț site that continued to produce ground stone tools for a longer period.

An unusual, incised ground stone artefact from southwestern Victoria, Australia: its function and potential symbolic significance

An unusual, incised sandstone artefact recovered during an archaeological salvage program in Bannockburn, southwestern Victoria, has been uniformly ground and contains sets of regularly spaced, shallow grooves on either side. Microscopic study indicates that the grooves were incised with stone and used to sharpen or shape the edges of wooden implements. The wear outside the grooves indicates contact with soft wood or other plant material, possibly a soft plant bag. When compared with other examples that are similar, the regularity and distribution of the grooves suggest a symbolic meaning, perhaps tally marks or other form of communication.

Data Recovery Excavations at the Snakeskin Bluff Site (41GU177), Guadalupe County, Texas

Data Recovery Excavations at the Snakeskin Bluff Site (41GU177), Guadalupe County, Texas

An Ancestral Caddo Site (41CS125) on the Sulphur River at Lake Wright Patman, Cass County, Texas

ln December 2017, AmaTerra Environmental lnc. conducted an intensive archeological survey of 41CS125, a previously reported ancestral Caddo site at Lake Wright Patman in Cass County, Texas. The work was done at the request of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth District in advance of a proposed bank stabilization pro}ect. The site was occupied from the Late Paleoindian period through historic times with extensive occupations during the Formative to Early Caddo and Late Caddo periods. Artifacts recovered in the investigations included both arrow and dart points, lithic debitage, bifaces, ground stone, a celt fragment, pitted stone, ceramic sherds, a ceramic bead, charred organic material, unidentified bone fragments, and 19th century historic domestic materials. While the site has been adversely affected through alluvial erosion and looting, survey results indicate that intact components of the site still exist along the northern and western periphery of the landform.

Effects of different surface finishing protocols for zirconia on surface roughness and bacterial biofilm formation.

PURPOSESurface finishing of a zirconia restoration is essential after clinical adjustment. Herein, we investigated the effects of a surface finishing protocol for monolithic zirconia on final roughness and bacterial adherence.MATERIALS AND METHODSForty-eight disk-shaped monolithic zirconia specimens were fabricated and divided into four groups (n = 12) based on initial surface treatment, finishing, and polishing protocols: diamond bur+polishing bur (DP group), diamond bur+stone grinding bur+polishing bur (DSP group), no diamond bur+polishing bur (NP group), and no diamond bur+stone grinding bur+polishing bur (NSP group). Initial and final surface roughness was measured with a profilometer, and shown using scanning electron microscope. Bacterial adhesion was evaluated by quantifying Streptococcus mutans in the biofilm. Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests were used to compare results among groups, and two-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate the effects of grinding burs on final roughness (α=.05).RESULTSThe DP group had the highest final Ra value, followed by the DSP, NP, and NSP groups. Use of the stone grinding bur as a coarse-finishing step significantly decreased final Ra values when a diamond bur was used (P<.001). Omission of the stone grinding bur increased biofilm formation on specimen surfaces. Combining a stone grinding bur with silicone polishing burs produced the smallest final biofilm values, regardless of the use of a diamond bur in initial surface treatment.CONCLUSIONCoarse finishing of monolithic zirconia with a stone grinding bur significantly decreased final Ra values and bacterial biofilm formation when surfaces had been roughened by a diamond bur.

Le sommet de l’iceberg ? Colonisation pionnière et néolithisation de la France méditerranéenne

Recent research into the European Neolithisation process and the development of farming communities reveals a diverse and complex cultural landscape. In the Western Mediterranean, it is now well known that the first agro-pastoral economy appears around 6000 BCE in south-eastern Italy and that part of these sites, often grouped under the generic term “Impressed Ware”, represent the departure point for the diffusion of the Neolithic economy. In this context, its rapid dispersal towards northern Italy and southern France is now interpreted as part of a pioneering colonization based on the use of maritime routes and preceding of several centuries the expansion of the Cardial culture. In southern France, archaeological settlements that make it possible to characterize this early stage of the Neolithisation process are still rare and do not have an equal value. The new discovery of an Impressa implantation at the site of ZAC de la Farigoule 2 (Aubord), in the Mediterranean Languedoc, gives us the opportunity to consolidate our knowledge about this major historical phenomenon. Despite its limited size, this site provides a rich set of data : domestic structures, pottery production, flint and obsidian industries, ground stone tools… The technological and typological characteristics of the pottery and the flint industry can be clearly assigned to the Impressa facies (Arene Candide-Caucade-Peiro Signado style). La Farigoule 2 is therefore an undeniable testimony to the establishment of a group linked to the agro-pastoral communities of the Italian peninsula. It is not possible to discuss in length the nature of the occupation on the basis of the deposits provided by the excavation. Nevertheless, the indirect evidence of cereal farming (sickle blades), the diversity of craft activities, the domestic structures, the identification of potters' tools, all these data are consistent with the image of a permanent occupation. Local resources are exploited : siliceous raw materials, clay soils and hard rocks. However, the use of products acquired several hundred kilometres away reinforces the hypothesis of the pioneering displacement of human groups taking with them their technical, economic and cultural background. Discussed in the broader scale of southern France and western Mediterranean, these new data allow us to consider fundamental issues raised by this pioneering colonization process. Important spatial discontinuities are observed in the distribution of these settlements, although this phenomenon seems to concern the entire Western Mediterranean. Nevertheless, the discovery presented in this paper should encourage us to consider a perhaps higher density of sites. It should also lead us to question our ability to detect these settlements. Concerning the natural and cultural factors that determine the settlement patterns of these Impressa groups, they are still in discussion but the scarcity of the paleoenvironmental data (position of the shoreline, vegetal landscape) restricts argumentation. Another issue is the future of these pioneering groups and their impact on the overall Neolithisation process in the South of France and possibly in Mediterranean Spain. In a large part of Southern France, one can observe a real chronological hiatus between sites with Impressa facies and those from the Cardial. Without ruling out the possibility of a taphonomic bias, this situation could be related to the model of micro-breaks observed elsewhere in the Neolithic diffusion in the Mediterranean at different periods. Finally, the analysis of the material productions of these pioneering groups illustrates complex socio-cultural dynamics that we still need to unravel. While the temporal dynamics of the diffusion of the "Neolithic package" (farming economy, pottery,…) across the western Mediterranean seems to be well understood, the chronometric, social and cultural framework needs to be considerably refined. In this perspective, further works on this important stage of Neolithic history, particularly through the discovery of new sites, is a major challenge for future research.

KALKOLİTİK GÜLPINAR TAŞ AĞIRLIKLARININ İŞLEVİNE YÖNELİK ÖNERİLER

The Early Chalcolithic 2 (Gulpinar II) and Middle Chalcolithic period (Gulpinar III) settlements identified at Smintheion (Sanctuary of Apollo Smintheus) in the southwestern corner of the modern Biga Peninsula (ancient Troad) in north-western Anatolia have revealed new evidence regarding ground stone tool typology. Evaluation of the ground stone tool assemblages from these two consecutive Chalcolithic phases at Gulpinar have resulted in identification of a unique class of tools that could be considered as stone weights or net sinkers. Such tools were previously unknown in the archaeological record of northwestern Anatolia. This assemblage of ground stone tools is examined here via ethnographic analogy based on parallels with North America and Oceania, where they were mainly classified as sinkers for fishing lines and nets. The function of these tools is controversial because they have often been identified as loom weights or miscellaneous objects in studies of western Anatolian archaeology because direct evidence for fishing gear is relatively scarce. For the first time, these Chalcolithic Gulpinar stone weights, found in situ along with a pile of shells, support the opinion of them being used as net sinkers. Beside ethnographic analogy, other examples reported from various sites in the Near East, Aegean, and Anatolia were also examined in order to explain the function of these ground stone tools. This study also proposes that the sinker stones of Chalcolithic Gulpinar could be added to Anatolian ground stone typology. It is hoped that these tools will contribute to our understanding of long-term conventions in the fishing methods of prehistoric people and in the functional use and variability of these objects.

The ground stone industry from Pericei-Keller tag. A secondary production centre?

This article analyses ground stone discoveries from the late neolithic site of Pericei located in north-west of Romania, in Șimleu Depression. Combined characteristics of chisels and adzes in working process are discussed along with their context, especially those connected to stone working: the layer, dwellings and pebble agglomerations. We conclude that Pericei was a production center for stone chisels, appeared to supply the demand that until then was satisfied by Suplac/Porț site that continued to produce ground stone tools for a longer period.

FADING RURAL ENTERPRISES OF KODAGU- Special Reference to the Grinding Stones of Paloor Village

Kodagu is the smallest district of Karnataka. It is considered as the Switzerland of the East and Kashmir of India. The district is basically an Agro-based economy. It is the second largest producer of coffee of the country and now added with eco-tourism because of its scenic beauty. Kodagu doesnot have any large scale industries but only agro based and MSME sector. It is because of its topography and climatic conditions. One such micro sector was the “Grinding stone production of the Paloor Village of Madikeri Taluka of the district. The grinding stones of this village was very famous not only in the district but also in the nearby districts like Mangaluru, Mysuru and also Bengaluru. The production was gradually decreasing and since two years it has come to a standstill due to lack of demand. Not only the stone grinders but also some of other rural enterprises are in the verge of fading away. This paper makes an attempt to focus on the realities and to find some remedies to the problem. KEY WORDS: Rural Enterprise, MSME, Stone Grinders

Radiometric chronology and a morphometric analysis of a grinding stone with grooves from the Torihama shell mound

Radiometric chronology and a morphometric analysis of a grinding stone with grooves from the Torihama shell mound

Ancient starch analysis of grinding stones from Kokatha Country, South Australia

Identifying the range of plants and/or animals processed by pounding and/or grinding stones has been a rapidly developing research area in world prehistory. In Australia, grinding and pounding stones are ubiquitous across the semi-arid and arid zones and the associated tasks have been mostly informed by ethnographic case studies. More recently, plant microfossil studies have provided important insights to the breadth of plants being exploited in a range of contexts and over long time periods. The preservation of starch and/or phytoliths on the used surfaces of these artefacts is well documented, though the factors determining the survival or destruction of use-related starch residues are still largely unknown. Some of these artefacts have also been used for grinding up small animals and these tasks can be identified by specific staining methods for organic remains such as collagen. In this study, 25 grinding and pounding stones identified during an archaeological project in arid South Australia, were examined for starch and collagen residues. The artefacts were from 3 locations in central South Australia, all located in exposed settings. Of these localities, Site 11 in the Western Valley near Woomera is an important Aboriginal landscape specifically associated with male ceremonial practice in the recent past. The remaining two sites, one in the adjacent Nurrungar Valley and the other near Andamooka 100 km distant, have unrestricted access and potentially a different suite of residues. The Kokatha Mula Nations, the Traditional Owners of Woomera, requested that this study be undertaken to explore the range of plants that may have been processed here. It provided an opportunity to investigate the preservation potential of starch and collagen on grinding stones; explore the range of taphonomic factors involved in the persistence of residues in extreme environmental conditions; and test the methodological developments in identifying specific plant origin of starch residues. Of the 25 grinding/pounding stones tested, 7 yielded starch grains. Geometric morphometric analysis identified 3 economic grass species, Crinum flaccidum (Andamooka Lily) and Typha domingensis (Bulrush/Cumbungi). Folded collagen was identified on one artefact. Oral histories recount the movement between Andamooka and Nurrungar/Western Valley for men's ceremonies, and documented in the movement of stone resources, e.g. oolytic chert.The survival of residues in this environment and the identification of economic plant taxa complement the current knowledge of ceremonial activities and the movement of people and resources across significant distances in arid South Australia.

Early pastoral economies along the Ancient Silk Road: Biomolecular evidence from the Alay Valley, Kyrgyzstan.

The Silk Road was an important trade route that channeled trade goods, people, plants, animals, and ideas across the continental interior of Eurasia, fueling biotic exchange and key social developments across the Old World. Nestled between the Pamir and Alay ranges at a baseline elevation of nearly 3000m, Kyrgyzstan’s high Alay Valley forms a wide geographic corridor that comprised one of the primary channels of the ancient Silk Road. Recent archaeological survey reveals a millennia-long history of pastoral occupation of Alay from the early Bronze Age through the Medieval period, and a stratified Holocene sequence at the site of Chegirtke Cave. Faunal remains were recovered from test excavations as well as surface collection of material from recent marmot activity. Although recovered specimens were highly fragmented and mostly unidentifiable using traditional zooarchaeological methods, species identification via collagen mass fingerprinting (ZooMS) coupled with sex and first-generation hybrid identification through ancient DNA enabled preliminary characterization of the animal economy of Alay herders. Our new results indicate primary reliance on sheep at Chegirtke Cave (ca. 2200 BCE), with cattle and goat also present. The discovery of a large grinding stone at a spatially associated Bronze or Iron Age habitation structure suggests a mixed agropastoral economic strategy, rather than a unique reliance on domestic animals. Radiocarbon-dated faunal assemblages from habitation structures at nearby localities in the Alay Valley demonstrate the presence of domestic horse, as well as Bactrian camel during later periods. The current study reveals that agropastoral occupation of the high-mountain Alay corridor started millennia before the formal establishment of the Silk Road, and posits that ZooMS, when paired with radiocarbon dates and ancient DNA, is a powerful and cost-effective tool for investigating shifts in the use of animal domesticates in early pastoral economies.

When mortars speak volumes

Among the various categories of ground stone technology in pre-colonial California, the mortar has a celebrated role in the shift to a subsistence economy dominated by acorn processing and consumption. The size and shape of mortars, both bedrock and portable, facilitated pulverising and grinding of these and other resources. It seems logical, therefore, to assume that larger mortar cavities, within certain limits, would be more productive than smaller ones. The experiment presented here was designed and conducted to test this hypothesis; it aims to determine whether increasing the depth and width of a mortar cavity improves acorn flour production. The potential application of these data to a technological investment model are discussed, emphasising future research goals and comparison with similar studies.

Human activity during the late Pleistocene in the Lop Nur region, northwest China: Evidence from a buried stone artifact

The Lop Nur region, in the east part of Tarim Basin, was an important transportation junction between west and east, north and south Eurasia. However, previous studies on prehistoric human activity have concentrated mostly on the Bronze Age, whereas that during the Stone Age remains largely unresearched. Here, we present a new direct evidence of human activity in the late Pleistocene, recorded on a grinding stone buried in a lacustrine sediment section of the Lop Nur region. The grain size distribution of the sediment section indicates that the site was probably in the center of a lake with weak hydrodynamic environment. Therefore, the stone artifact can only be carried to here by people instead of river and it was never move as soon as left here. Results of radiocarbon dating, the evident stratigraphic relations between the stone artifact and the sedimentary formation, indicate that the human activity could extend to approximately 13 ka BP. Furthermore, the results of starch-grain and use-wear analyses suggest that ancient humans gathered seeds of Triticeae, roots, and tubers and used the grinding stone to simply process selected plant as plant foodstuffs during this period. It implies that the environmental conditions in the river delta of the Lop Nur were inhabitable during the late Pleistocene.

The Influence of Groundwater on the Sliding and Deposition Behaviors of Cataclinal Slopes

In 2015, Typhoon Soudelor caused a number of slopes to collapse in Wulai District of New Taipei City. One of these landslides took place in the village of Zhongzhi and involved atypical cataclinal slope failure with a rock–soil interface. The remaining rock in the slope and the rock that originally covered it contained vertical joints, so groundwater could have flowed through the joints and influenced landslide behavior. However, few existing studies have examined the influence of upward groundwater flow on slope stability. To fill this gap, this study used physical tests and discrete element method software to conduct relevant investigations. We first conducted tests using the ground water flow and cataclinal slope simulator, in which water can flow out of holes in the platform to simulate upward-seeping groundwater. We used gypsum boards or rhombus-shaped grinding stones to simulate rock with vertical joints and round grinding stones mixed in paste to simulate cohesive regolith. The objective of the tests was to understand the influence of water flow on the landslide behavior of the specimens and the connections between movement behavior and the sequence of sliding between different materials during the landslide. We then reproduced the physical tests using discrete element method software PFC3D (Particle Flow Code 3D Version 4.0 by Itasca, Minneapolis, MN, USA) to display the influence of water flow on specimens, including the weakening of bond strength, decreasing coefficient of friction between particles, and the application of seepage force, as well as uplift and lateral forces caused by water pressure. This process gave us an understanding of the influence of different groundwater conditions on landslide behavior, which facilitates the study of landslide mechanisms and movement behavior. Finally, we applied the water flow influence settings to simulate and examine the Zhongzhi landslide process. Compared to methods that simply reduce the friction coefficients to trigger landslides, our numerical simulation was closer to reality in that in this case a rising water table triggered the landslide.