Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Targets Research Articles

Risk assessment of achieving greenhouse gas emission reduction target in maritime industry

To mitigate climate change, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has mandated a 50% reduction in shipping-related greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 compared to 2018. While short-term measures are agreed, several barriers remain in achieving this emission reduction target. Existing research only focuses on specific scenarios and ignores comprehensive risks that influence the target realization. Hence, this study fills the research gap by identifying 28 potential risks and prioritize the most threatening risks using the Political, Economic, Social, Technical, Legal, and Environmental framework. Further, risk assessment on the target achievement is conducted to prioritize risk categories and risk factors via a combination of Evidential Reasoning and Rule-based Bayesian network. Finally, sensitivity analysis is performed to validate the results. The findings show that the categories, in the descending order of their importance, are economic, political, environmental, legal, social, technological risk. In addition, the results reveal that “high low-carbon fuel prices” is the most pivotal risk under the economic risk while notable political, environmental, legal, social, and technological risks also are recognized, each presenting distinct uncertainties in the decarbonization process. This study offers useful insights and strategic recommendations for stakeholders, aiding the transition to a low carbon maritime transportation.

Comparing the ambition of EU companies with science-based targets to EU regulation-imposed reductions

Companies can support governments in bridging the emissions gap between current policies and the Paris goals by adhering to voluntary greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets that align with or surpass those implied by domestic policies. To this end, we assessed the potential impact of EU companies that set targets through the Science Based Targets Initiative (SBTi) in 2020 relative to an EU reference policies scenario that represents the estimated impact of the ETS and ESR policy instruments applicable at that time, with the aim of achieving a 40% reduction relative to 1990 by 2030. Two scenarios were assessed that incorporate the SBTi targets under these instruments: one assuming no additional reductions in the ETS sector due to the waterbed effect, and one with flanking measures to ensure additional emissions reductions regulated by ETS are materialised. Depending on the assumption made about these flanking measures, EU companies with SBTi-approved targets are projected to achieve a 4% or 14% reduction by 2030 compared to the EU 2020 policies scenario. Our findings illustrate that companies with SBTi-approved targets in 2020 were at most in line or modestly more ambitious than the 40% reduction target. This study highlights that voluntary reductions from SBTi companies regulated by ETS display higher estimated reductions than those solely regulated by ESR. Furthermore, this analysis indicates that more policy details are crucial for assessing the potential additional reduction of voluntary targets, and additional reductions under ETS should be assumed zero if a conservative estimate is required.

Quantifying the Financial and Climate Impacts of Greenhouse Gas Abatement Pathways in Residential Space Heating

New York State (NYS) has set strict greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets across all sectors of its economy, including the heating sector. This study examines the financial value and environmental impacts of the residential space heating sector in NYS under different GHG abatement options by comparing the existing natural gas heating pathway with three potential GHG abatement pathways: renewable natural gas (RNG), hydrogen blended into RNG, and air-source heat pumps (ASHPs). These pathways are analyzed via a comparative net present value (NPV) framework from 2022 to 2042 with the emission reduction represented as a revenue stream that serves as a function of the social cost of GHGs. The investment timing of each of these pathways is also accounted for to reflect the pathways’ varying deployment timelines. The ASHP pathway with a 10% financial discount rate and a 2% social cost of the GHG discount rate achieves the lowest NPV. The RNG pathway achieves the highest NPV. A sensitivity analysis determines the impact of key factors on the NPV results. This study aims to inform policymakers, homeowners, and stakeholders of the potential benefits and costs of each of the four pathways to aid them in their decision-making process.

Review of the marine energy environment-a combination of traditional, bibliometric and PESTEL analysis

Marine renewable energy is regarded as a nascent renewable energy resource that is less utilized due to a number of challenges in the sector. This paper focused on using both traditional and bibliometric analysis approaches to review the marine energy industry. It also assessed the various opportunities and challenges in the sector beyond technological challenges using PESTEL analysis. The results from the study identified the availability of renewable energy targets, international and national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets, job creation, skill transfer from offshore industries, renewable support, and low GHG emissions as the major opportunities for the sector. The challenges in the sector include the lack of commonality in device designs, high initial capital costs, lack of appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks, lack of funding, fragmentations in regulatory institutions, bad macro-economic indicators in some countries, environmental challenges, the survivability of the various technologies in the harsh oceanic environment, and strong competition from other renewable energy sources. The outcome of the bibliometric analysis spanning from 2013 to 2023 shows that tidal power is the focus of research in the field, and most studies are either focused on ways to improve its efficiency in terms of technology or on the identification of resource potentials for the siting of the various marine renewable power systems. Recommendations such as strong cooperation between the government and private sector, increased public education, collaboration with existing players in the marine sector, and increased research and development, among others, were proposed for the development of the sector.

Belgian public authorities held liable for flawed climate policy: Klimaatzaak case

The judgment handed down in the Klimaatzaak case by the French-speaking Court of First Instance of Brussels on 17 June 2021 was largely confirmed by the well-reasoned 160-page judgment of the Brussels Court of Appeal of 30 November 2023. This judgment raises fundamental issues relating to the judicial review of inaction by public authorities that leads to a failure to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In reviewing the Belgian climate change policies in the light of the fundamental rights to life and private and family life and the general duty of care inherent in fault-based civil liability, the Court of Appeal narrowed the gap between Belgian GHG emission reduction targets and public mitigation measures. It follows that political rhetoric must be fleshed out into legal instruments that are properly designed to counter the impacts of climate change on life and privacy.

Regulation Mechanism for Designing Decarbonization Pathways in the Copper Industry Toward Carbon Neutrality.

The transformation of the global power structure caused by the carbon neutrality goal will promote copper consumption. It is crucial to explore the decarbonization pathways of the copper industry to help fulfill greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets. This study utilized material flow analysis and life cycle assessment methods to investigate 12 different subscenarios based on international trade, circular economy, technology evolution, and environmental market factors. Policy combination scenario is employed to reveal the mechanism of decarbonization. The results show that refined copper consumption in China is expected to increase by 62.3% in 2060 compared to 2020. The GHG emissions of China's copper industry will reach 9.1 million tonnes (Mt) CO2e in 2060, technology evolution and environmental market are crucial for realizing carbon neutrality goal of this industry, accounting for 26.4 and 47.2% of emissions reductions, respectively, between 2020 and 2060. International trade and circular economy play important roles in the high-quality carbon peaking stage; however, imported copper and domestic secondary copper will constitute the basic supply of copper resources in China in the long run, and the comparative advantages of them will gradually weaken. Policy combination scenario can achieve the incentive synergy effect, with GHG reduced to 0.5 Mt CO2e in 2060. The enhanced application of policies such as material substitution and carbon emission trading will further promote industry to achieve net-zero GHG emission. We suggest regulating the industry's structure based on the international systemic circulation pattern and accelerating the construction of a green circular chain in the short term to achieve sustainable copper supply and high-quality carbon peaking. Promoting a high-quality technology development strategy and enhancing the environmental markets are recommended in the long term to achieve carbon neutrality.

Unlocking the potential of the bioeconomy for climate change reduction: The optimal use of lignocellulosic biomass in Germany

AbstractThe concept of a circular bioeconomy has become a new economic leitmotif for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Its central narrative rests on the idea of replacing fossil resources with biobased ones for a broad spectrum of products including, for example, heat, electricity, fuels, plastics, or chemicals. Yet, the amount of available bio‐resources is limited, rendering some technologies successful while leaving behind others. Lignocellulosic biomass (LBM) is a key resource already used on a large scale for heating purposes or electricity production and increasingly for the production of chemicals and biofuels. Because market mechanisms do not necessarily drive a cost‐optimal use with respect to their GHG‐reduction potential, a new bi‐objective linear optimization model under long‐term scenarios was developed for Germany accounting for competition with non‐biobased technologies. In the biofuels and biochemicals sectors, multi‐output processes that address industrial symbiosis and fossil references are used to compute profits and GHG emission savings of biobased products. However, in the absence of a reference for heat, a detailed representation of the heat sector is used in which heat demand for 19 subsectors is met, thus deriving costs and emission savings endogenously. When explicitly accounting for GHG emission reduction targets, biomass is optimally used in high‐temperature industries whereas heat pumps dominate in building heat. Because of the optimal use of biomass in industrial usage, subsidies for biomass heating are found to be inefficient in the building sector. Catalytic hydropyrolysis to produce biogasoline and biodiesel using LBM dominates the production of biofuels while biochemicals—strongly depending on oil price developments—will become competitive on a large scale after 2030.

Effects of dietary supplementation with 3-nitrooxypropanol on enteric methane production, rumen fermentation, and performance in young growing beef cattle offered a 50:50 forage:concentrate diet.

There is an urgent requirement internationally to reduce enteric methane (CH4) emissions from ruminants to meet greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets. Dietary supplementation with feed additives is one possible strategy under investigation as an effective solution. The effects of the CH4 inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP) at reducing CH4 emissions in beef have been shown mainly in adult cattle consuming backgrounding and high-energy finishing diets. In this study, the effects of dietary supplementation of young growing (≤6 mo) beef cattle with 3-NOP were examined in a 50:50 forage:concentrate diet. A total of 68 Dairy × Beef (Aberdeen Angus and Hereford dairy cross) male calves (≤6 mo of age at the start of experiment, body weight: 147 ± 38 kg) underwent a 3-wk acclimatization period and were then assigned to one of two treatments in a completely randomized block design. Dietary treatments were (1) control, placebo (no 3-NOP), and (2) 3-NOP applied at 150 mg kg-1 DM. Calves were fed a partial mixed ration for 12 wk. Body weight was recorded weekly and feed intake daily using the Calan Broadbent feeding system. Methane and hydrogen emissions were measured using the GreenFeed system. Total weight gained, dry matter intake (DMI), and average daily gain were not affected by 3-NOP (P > 0.05) supplementation. On average, the inclusion of 3-NOP decreased (P < 0.001) CH4 emissions: g d-1; g kg-1 DMI; by 30.6% and 27.2%, respectively, during the study with a greater reduction occurring over time. Incorporating 3-NOP into beef cattle diets is an efficient solution to decrease CH4 emissions during indoor feeding and when offered 50:50 forage:concentrate diet.

Decarbonisation pathways of the cement production process via hydrogen and oxy-combustion

Decarbonising cement production is of profound importance for meeting global greenhouse gas emission reduction targets and mitigating the impact of climate change. This study evaluates various technical options for achieving deep decarbonisation in a clinker production facility by utilising hydrogen (H2) as an alternative fuel to replace fossil fuels and by integrating an oxy-combustion technique with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Using Aspen Plus process simulations, we examined the extent of decarbonisation and assessed the thermal and electrical energy demands. This was achieved by incorporating an amine-absorption-based CO2 capture to a conventional natural gas fuelled reference plant, implementing oxyfuel-combustion of natural gas, and exploring four different scenarios for replacing fossil fuel with H2. In these scenarios, H2 was assumed to be produced through on-site water electrolysis, which also supplied oxygen for oxyfuel combustion, potentially eliminating the need for an air separation unit (ASU). The processes utilizing H2, except for the case of indirectly heated pre-calcination, employed oxyfuel combustion. The results indicate that the natural gas-fuelled oxyfuel-combustion process had the lowest total energy input at 4.92 GJ/t clinker, approximately 35% lower than that of the reference plant. Processes using H2 reduced energy demand by 11% in the H2-d scenario and 33% in the H2-a scenario. However, the process with indirect calcination required 6.24 GJ/t clinker, about 8% more H2 fuel than direct calcination but helped eliminate the need for an ASU. The results also reveal that greater H2 substitutions led to higher total process energy requirements due to the inefficiencies of the electrolysis process. While the H2-using processes could reduce the CO2 generation by up to 559 kgCO2/t clinker, this represents only about 27.6% of the CO2 reductions relative to the reference plant. These findings underscore the limitation of fuel substitution alone in cement production and emphasize the need for innovations in raw materials and the adoption of CCS to achieve deeper decarbonisation in cement industries.

Hybrid Wind-Solar Energy System for Remote Locations in Northern Alberta

Using renewable energy resources as alternatives to fossil fuel systems is encouraged globally by government and other agencies to achieve greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. Solar and Wind energies are the two widely common renewable energy resources and have reached a mature technological phase for various applications in rural and urban settings. However, these energy resources are prone to intermittency with temporal and seasonal availability. In a cold climate region like northern Alberta, the winter conditions limit solar energy availability significantly. On the other hand, wind energy in the region has consistent availability most of the time. In this work, to develop a standalone all-season sustainable energy system at remote locations, such as rural areas and agricultural applications, a hybrid wind-solar system configuration is modeled, simulated, and analyzed to achieve 200 watts of uninterrupted power in Alberta weather conditions. The results show that wind energy production compliments solar energy production during the wintertime. The hybrid configuration can meet a consistent load demand that is difficult to implement in northern Alberta conditions.

Joining multi‐stakeholder initiatives to fight climate change: The environmental impact of corporate participation in the Science Based Targets initiative

AbstractThis study theorizes and empirically tests whether firms' decisions to join multi‐stakeholder initiatives, targeting climate mitigation, lead to improved environmental performance. We focus on firms' participations in the Science Based Targets initiative, a multi‐stakeholder initiative meant to support firms in setting greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets in line with the thresholds defined by the Paris Agreement in 2015. The study hypothesizes that participation reduces firm's concerns about uncertainty and encourages investments in timeous internal climate change activities. We used the coarsened exact matching methodology to create a matched sample of European and North American listed firms participating in the initiative and comparable, non‐participating firms over a 3‐year period from 2015 to 2017. The results showed that firms' participation led to lower levels of GHG emissions compared to similar non‐participating counterparts, especially when they committed to the initiative with the intention to follow the proposed indications.

Does the low-carbon pilot cities policy make a difference to the carbon intensity reduction?

The low-carbon pilot cities policy (LCPCP) aims to stimulate economic growth and ensure the attainment of greenhouse gas emission reduction targets to address climate change. China issued the LCPCP in 2010 and steadily expanded the size of its pilot zones. This study builds a quasi-natural experiment based on China's LCPCP and a difference-in-difference model employing urban carbon intensity data over a 10-year period beginning in 2007 to examine the implementation repercussions of the LCPCP. According to the findings, the LCPCP has significantly reduced the carbon intensity of pilot cities. Additionally, an analysis of heterogeneity suggests that the LCPCP is more prevalent in regions with higher concentrations of secondary industries. Moreover, the mechanism reveals that the decarbonization program reduces carbon intensity through technological innovation, particularly in eastern China. In conclusion, our findings provide strong support for the operation and promotion of China's LCPCP as well as guidance and support for China's goal of reducing carbon emissions.

Decarbonising international shipping – A life cycle perspective on alternative fuel options

This study aimed to compare hydrogen, ammonia, methanol, and waste-derived biofuels as shipping fuels using life cycle assessment, to establish what potential they have to contribute to the shipping industry’s 100% greenhouse gas emission reduction target. A novel approach was taken where the greenhouse gas emissions associated with one year of global shipping fleet operations was used as a common unit for comparison, therefore, allowing the potential life cycle greenhouse gas emission reduction from each fuel option to be compared relative to Paris Agreement compliant targets for international shipping. The analysis uses life cycle assessment, from resource extraction to use within ships, with all GHGs evaluated for a 100-year time horizon (GWP100).Green hydrogen, waste-derived biodiesel, and bio-methanol are found to have the best decarbonisation potential, with potential emission reductions of 74–81%, 87%, and 85–94% compared to heavy fuel oil; however, some barriers to shipping’s decarbonisation progress are identified. None of the alternative fuels considered are currently produced at a large enough scale to meet shipping’s current energy demand, and uptake of alternative fuel vessels is too slow considering the scale of the challenge at hand. The decarbonisation potential from alternative fuels alone is also found to be insufficient, as no fuel option can offer the 100% emission reduction required by the sector by 2050.The study also uncovers several sensitives within the life cycles of the fuel options analysed, that have received limited attention in previous life cycle investigations into alternative shipping fuels. First, the choice of allocation method can potentially double the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of e-methanol due to the carbon accounting challenges of using waste carbon dioxide streams during fuel production. This leads to concerns related to the true impact of using carbon dioxide captured from fossil-fuelled processes to produce a combustible product, due to the resultant high downstream emissions. Second, nitrous oxide emissions from ammonia combustion are found to be highly sensitive due to high greenhouse gas potency, potentially offsetting any greenhouse reduction potential compared to heavy fuel oil. Further uncertainties are highlighted due to limited available data on the rate of nitrous oxide production from ammonia engines. The study therefore highlights an urgent need for the shipping sector to consider these factors when investing in new ammonia and methanol engines; failing to do so risks jeopardizing the sector’s progress towards decarbonisation.Finally, whilst alternative fuels can offer good decarbonisation potential (particularly waste derived bio-methanol and bio-diesel, and green hydrogen), this cannot be achieved without accelerated investment in new and retrofit vessels, and new fuel supply chains: the research concludes that existing pipeline of vessel orders and fuel production facilities is insufficient. Furthermore, there is a need to integrate alternative fuel uptake with other decarbonisation strategies such as slow steaming and wind propulsion.

Climate targets by major steel companies: An assessment of collective ambition and planned emission reduction measures

This article systematically assesses the status, robustness, and potential impact of greenhouse gas emission reduction targets set by the largest steel producer companies as of mid-2022. The assessment covers the 60 largest steel companies by volume, accounting for more than 60 % of global steel production. Data on company-level greenhouse gas emission reduction targets and emission reduction measures were collected from publicly available documents.We found that only 30 companies have their own greenhouse gas emission reduction targets of varying timeframes between 2025 and 2060. Even when excluding the 15 Chinese state-owned companies that are under the national 2060 net zero target, 15 companies had no emission reduction targets. Twenty-one companies had long-term targets (2040 or after), of which 18 were net zero emission targets; all but one also had interim targets. If all climate targets identified among the 60 companies are achieved, annual CO2 emissions for the 60 companies could be reduced by up to 12 % by 2030 and up to 39 % by 2050 in comparison to a baseline scenario. Assuming a gradual increase in global crude steel demand from 1.9 Gt in 2019 to 2.5 Gt in 2050 and assuming similar trends for the rest of the global iron and steel sector as observed for the 60 companies, we estimate that the current ambition of the global iron and steel sector on emission reductions would lead to a reduction of 38 % to 53 % by 2050 from 2019 levels (3.4 GtCO2 to 1.6–2.1 GtCO2), or compared to a 32 % to 43 % reduction in a baseline scenario in 2050.Steel companies are also lagging in setting clear emission reduction plans to achieve their targets. We found that 14 out of the 30 steel producers with targets did not provide an emission reduction plan. The most popular measures amongst the 16 companies that identified at least one measure to achieve their target in their emission reduction plans were hydrogen-based DRI (n = 14), enhanced use of renewable electricity (n = 13) and Carbon Capture Utilisation and Storage (CCU/S) for blast furnaces (n = 9). While it is encouraging that the steel companies have started acting toward long-term deep decarbonisation, our findings suggest that there is a long way ahead and the action needs to be accelerated considerably.

Climate Change Mitigation in Thailand’s Domestic Aviation: Mitigation Options Analysis towards 2050

Thailand’s civil aviation industry has expanded rapidly in the past ten years resulting in increasing aviation greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy consumption. The rapid growth in air transport is anticipated to continue further. Presently, domestic aviation and the economy of many countries are recovering rapidly in the post-COVID-19 period, resulting in fuel consumption and GHG emissions gradually increasing again. However, despite implementing the ICAO’s CORSIA (International Civil Aviation Organization’s Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation) rule for international aviation, GHG emissions in the domestic aviation sector are largely unregulated. Moreover, the literature lacks a GHG emissions analysis that considers this sector’s potential growth and mitigation policies for future GHG emissions. To close the gap, this study conducted a GHG emissions analysis from this sector under various scenarios through 2050 using historical data during 2008–2020 to forecast future trends. It evaluates the impact of the mitigation policies, such as fuel switching and aircraft technology, on improving fuel efficiency due to technological advancements in aircraft and carbon pricing. The results show that the fuel switching option would result in a significant long-term reduction in GHG emissions, whereas the carbon pricing option and aircraft technology option are desirable in reducing GHG emissions in the short term. Therefore, to meet GHG emissions reduction targets more successfully, all measures must be simultaneously executed to address short- and long-term mitigation strategies. These findings have significant implications for both present and future GHG emissions reduction measures, supporting Thailand’s 2050 climate targets and energy efficiency policies as the domestic aviation industry adjusts.

ANALISIS TEKNO EKONOMI ATAP SURYA STUDI KASUS DI KOTA MEDAN, INDONESIA

Indonesia has released its pledge on reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Mitigation measures include increasing the use of renewable energy. Solar roofs are one potential mitigation measure to meet GHG emission reduction and renewable energy targets. As more attention is being focused on developing this renewable energy resource globally, the technical and economic assessment of this resource is critical to ascertain its feasibility. In this study, a technological and economic analysis of solar roof tops is presented. The analysis was carried out based on solar irradiation in the city of Medan, Indonesia. Solar irradiation over several days was measured. The measured data and the solar photovoltaic module panels available in the Indonesian market are used to carry out the technical analysis. Based on the technical analysis and economic analysis carried out, the economic analysis of the results of the visualization of the power produced by the PV system which was carried out for 1 year resulted in a total value of electricity of IDR 3,672,895 for the city of Medan. It is expected to provide the necessary information to build cities with low emissions.&#x0D; Keywords: Solar Roof, Photovoltaics, Technoeconomics

IMPACT OF LULUCF ACCOUNTING RULES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION GOALS: WINNING OR LOSING?

Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) sector plays an important role in climate change mitigation as long-term goal of carbon neutral economy depends on sector’s ability to sequestrate carbon in biomass and soil. With reference to the Paris Agreement, accounting rules for LULUCF sector have been heavily discussed in European Union (EU), seeking of trustworthy inclusion of the sector in the assessment of Union’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction target. Therefore, the paper aims to analyze LULUCF sector’s contribution to climate change mitigation with different accounting rules applied in EU countries and particularly in Lithuania. On EU level LULUCF sector’s absorption in 2019 has equaled around –234 million t CO2 eq. (6% of total EU GHG emissions), in some countries reaching more than a half of national emissions. However, different accounting rules applied may provide significantly different number of potential credits for separate EU countries, creating some “winners” and “losers” situation. Though inclusion of LULUCF sector into GHG’s emissions reduction targets remains discussible, some stability in rules is one of the main preconditions for proper LULUCF sector management decisions.

Differentiation of greenhouse gases in corporate science-based targets improves alignment with Paris temperature goal

Companies are increasingly setting greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets to align with the 1.5 °C goal of the Paris Agreement. Currently, companies set these science-based targets (SBTs) for aggregate GHGs expressed in CO2-equivalent emissions. This approach does not specify which gases will be reduced and risk misalignment with ambitious mitigation scenarios in which individual gas emissions are mitigated at different rates. We propose that companies instead set reduction targets for separate baskets of GHGs, defined according to the atmospheric lifetimes and global mitigation potentials of GHGs. We use a sector-level analysis to approximate the average impact of this proposal on company SBTs. We apply a multiregional environmentally extended input output model and a range of 1.5 °C emissions scenarios to compare 1-, 2- and 3-basket approaches for calculating sector-level SBTs for direct (scope 1) and indirect (scope 2 and upstream scope 3) emissions for all major global sectors. The multi-basket approaches lead to higher reduction requirements for scope 1 and 2 emissions than the current single-basket approach for most sectors, because these emission sources are usually dominated by CO2, which is typically mitigated faster than other gases in 1.5 °C scenarios. Exceptions are scope 1 emissions for fossil and biological raw material production and waste management, which are dominated by other GHGs (mainly CH4 and N2O). On the other hand, upstream scope 3 reduction targets at the sector level often become less ambitious with a multi-basket approach, owing mainly to substantial shares of CH4 and, in some cases, non-CO2 long-lived emissions. Our results indicate that a shift to a multi-basket approach would improve the alignment of SBTs with the Paris temperature goal and would require most of the current set of companies with approved SBTs to increase the ambition of their scope 1 and scope 2 targets. More research on the implications of a multi-basket approach on company-level SBTs for all scope 3 activities (downstream, as well as upstream) is needed.

Farm biogas project considering carbon trading indicates promising economic results-a case study.

The application of the farm biogas project is a perfect measure to deal with the increasingly nervous global climate problem and energy crisis and can support the accomplishment of urgently needed carbon peaking and carbon neutrality effectively. But the poor economic benefits hinder its better development. Thus, this paper aims to enhance the economics of farm biogas projects and explore a win-win model for economic and environmental benefits by studying the economic impact of participation in carbon trading on three types of farm biogas projects. First, economic analysis of farm biogas projects based on life cycle cost is carried out using case analysis. Second, the greenhouse gas emission reductions are calculated and benefits from carbon trading are considered. Then, the economic robustness was tested. Specifically, the economics of all three types of farm biogas projects is improved after carbon trading. The ecological farm biogas project has the best economic performance, with a net present value of $551,689.11, internal rate of return of 49%, and payback period of 2.39years. In addition, the emission reductions of 5045.79 t CO2e, 7420.28 t CO2e, and 148.41 t CO2e are very significant. Based on these, suggestions for developing farm biogas projects and introducing biogas projects to carbon trading are put forward for the reference of governments and investors when making investments and reforms. According to the result, participation of farm biogas projects in carbon trading can effectively enhance economic benefits and accelerate the achievement of the greenhouse gas emission reduction target which is of great significance to the urgent goal of global green and low-carbon transformation.

Importance of mangrove plantations for climate change mitigation in Bangladesh.

Mangroves have been identified as blue carbon ecosystems that are natural carbon sinks. In Bangladesh, the establishment of mangrove plantations for coastal protection has occurred since the 1960s, but the plantations may also be a sustainable pathway to enhance carbon sequestration, which can help Bangladesh meet its greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets, contributing to climate change mitigation. As a part of its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement 2016, Bangladesh is committed to limiting the GHG emissions through the expansion of mangrove plantations, but the level of carbon removal that could be achieved through the establishment of plantations has not yet been estimated. The mean ecosystem carbon stock of 5-42 years aged (average age: 25.5 years) mangrove plantations was 190.1 (±30.3)Mg C ha-1 , with ecosystem carbon stocks varying regionally. The biomass carbon stock was 60.3 (±5.6)Mg C ha-1 and the soil carbon stock was 129.8 (±24.8)Mg C ha-1 in the top 1 m of which 43.9 Mg C ha-1 was added to the soil after plantation establishment. Plantations at age 5 to 42 years achieved 52% of the mean ecosystem carbon stock calculated for the reference site (Sundarbans natural mangroves). Since 1966, the 28,000 ha of established plantations to the east of the Sundarbans have accumulated approximately 76,607 Mg C year-1 sequestration in biomass and 37,542 Mg C year-1 sequestration in soils, totaling 114,149 Mg C year-1 . Continuation of the current plantation success rate would sequester an additional 664,850 Mg C by 2030, which is 4.4% of Bangladesh's 2030 GHG reduction target from all sectors described in its NDC, however, plantations for climate change mitigation would be most effective 20 years after establishment. Higher levels of investment in mangrove plantations and higher plantation establishment success could contribute up to 2,098,093 Mg C to blue carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in Bangladesh by 2030.