Green Stem Research Articles

Purple stem Brassica napus exhibits higher photosynthetic efficiency, antioxidant potential and anthocyanin biosynthesis related genes expression against drought stress.

Purple-stem Brassica napus (B. napus) is a phenotype with unique color because of its high anthocyanins content. Anthocyanins are naturally occurring plant pigments that have antioxidants activity and play important role in plant defense against abiotic and biotic stresses. In the present study, drought induced effects on plants were investigated in hydroponically grown seedlings of green stem (GS) and purple stem (PS) genotypes of B. napus. The results of this study showed that the major function of anthocyanins accumulation during drought was to enhance the antioxidant capability and stress tolerance in B. napus plants. Our results showed that drought significantly inhibited the plant growth in terms of decreased biomass accumulation in both genotypes, although marked decline was observed in GS genotype. The reduction in photosynthetic attributes was more noticeable in the GS genotype, whereas the PS genotype showed better performance under drought stress. Under stressful conditions, both the genotype showed excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), as well as higher levels of antioxidant enzymes activities. Under drought conditions, the GS genotype showed apparent damages on chloroplast deformation like in thylakoid membrane and grana structural distortion and fewer starch grains and bigger plastoglobuli. Moreover, during drought stress, the PS genotype exhibited maximum expression levels of anthocyanins biosynthesis genes and antioxidant enzymes accompanied by higher stress tolerance relative to GS genotype. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that GS genotype found more sensitive to drought stress than the PS genotype. Furthermore this research paper also provides practical guidance for plant biologists who are developing stress-tolerant crops by using anthocyanin biosynthesis or regulatory genes.

Agronomic performance and chemical composition of genotypes and cultivars of Megathyrsus maximus in Roraima’s savannas

The agronomic performance of 23 genotypes and six commercial cultivars of Megathyrsus maximus was evaluated under natural field conditions at the Roraima´s savannas, during the period of June 2015 to September 2019. The evaluated parameters were green dry matter (GDM) yield, leaf, stem and dead DM yields, crude protein (CP) contents, concentrations of neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber. The genotypes and cultivars evaluated affected the yields and the chemical composition of the forage. The most promising genotypes showed superior agronomic performance than the commercial cultivars evaluated. The genotypes B16; PM10; PM40 and PM14 showed the highest green dry matter yields and forage with better nutritional quality, higher CP and lower fiber contents. These showed average yields of 5,103 and 3,925 kg ha-1, for green DM and leaf DM, respectively, which represented increments of 20.7 and 12.8%, compared with those registered for the commercial cultivars. The genotype PM15 evidenced the highest productive performance during the dry season, constituting an option for regions with climatic restrictions, notably reduced rainfall. All genotypes and cultivars showed seasonal growth. The genotypes that showed the best seasonal distribution of forage production were PM11, PM36, PM30 and PM33, which provided 47.9; 46.8; 41.0 and 40.7% of GDM production during the dry season. In general, higher crude protein and lower fiber contents were directly correlated with the percentage of leaves in the available forage. The evaluated genotypes presented great genetic variability for the accumulation of forage and its chemical composition that can subsidize the generation of new commercial cultivars.

Cooccurrence of pH-sensitive shifting blue and immobile green triple surface-state fluorescence in ultrasmall super body-centered cubic carbon quantum dots

Carbon quantum dots are widely used in various fields owing to excellent optical properties and outstanding biocompatibility. We synthesize rare super body-centered cubic (C8) structured carbon quantum dots by using cheap source materials and simple preparation method. They exhibit one shifting blue emission band and two close immobile green bands. They have large Stokes shifts ranging from 0.68 to 1.01 eV and large quantum yields as high as 60%. The three types of emissions are competitive and their intensities vary sensitively and differently with pH. Moreover, their emission intensity versus excitation power curves follow with k values significantly smaller than unity. The blue emission follows the stretched exponential decay law with an intermediate lifetime of ∼3.9 ns and a lifetime-dispersion factor of ∼0.85 whereas the two green emissions exhibit faster and slower decays with respective lifetimes of around 2.0 and 13.0 ns. The results reveal that the blue emission originates from an ensemble of emission sites exhibiting quantum confinement-like effect and two green emissions stem from pH-sensitive surface functional groups-associated fluorophores.

High source–sink ratio at and after sink capacity formation promotes green stem disorder in soybean

Green stem disorder (GSD) of soybean is characterized by delayed leaf and stem maturation despite normal pod maturation. Previous studies have suggested that GSD occurrence is promoted by a high source–sink ratio, which is produced by thinning or shade removal at the R5 growth stage (the beginning of seed filling). Here the effects of different times and durations of shade removal after the R5 stage on GSD severity were analyzed. First, shade removal for more than 28 days after R5 increased GSD severity by more than 0.4 point in GSD score. Thinning treatment at R5 increased specific leaf weight by 23%, suppressed stem dry weight reduction, and upregulated 19 genes including those encoding vegetative storage proteins at R5 + 28d, indicating excess source ability relative to sink size. On the contrary, shade removal for 14 days after R5 decreased GSD severity by 0.5 point in GSD score. In this treatment, seed size was smaller, while seed number was significantly larger than control, suggesting that shortage of source ability relative to sink size. These results implied that soybean plants regulate GSD occurrences either positively or negatively according to a source-sink ratio during the R5 to R5 + 28d growth stages.

Characterization of the green gram (Vigna radiata L.) genotypes through both morphological and biochemical parameters

Eight genotypes of greengram were collected in the present investigation from AICRP on MULLaRP, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV) and they were characterized with ten quantitative, nineteen qualitative and two biochemical parameters as per the NBPGR descriptor. Grouping based on DUS descriptors indicate the existence of genetic diversity within the genotypes. These eight genotypes were evaluated and characterized for 31 DUS descriptors. However, 21 characters out of 31 characters of DUS descriptors differed significantly indicating a large and exploitable amount of genetic variability for the individual elite improved line profile development for identification and protection. The elite lines are similar for the important plant traits like semi erect and determinate growth habit but the development of erect types is the need of hour and indicates the incorporation of new germplasm for the improvement of this trait in the present material. Genotypes could be easily identified through some unique characters: SML-1822 could be identified amongst genotypes studied here in through its semi-erect growth habit, green stem colour with purple shade, dark green leaf colour, light yellow flower colour and bearing pods below canopy; identification of IPM-512-1 and TMB-37 could be made through seeds with drum shape and dull seed luster respectively; and Pusa Vishal through its leaves with dark green colour along with intermediate pod position and larger seed size. Samrat is having highest amount of protein as well as carbohydrate content among these genotypes. Thus, the DUS descriptor data generated with unique profiles of the elite improved lines can be used for the registration with PPV & FRA and seed purity testing.

Germplasm Characterization for Morphological Diversity in the Potential Futuristic Crop Amaranthus (Amaranthus spp.)

The present study was carried out to characterize 209 Amaranth germplasm consisting of 124 grain amaranth and 85 vegetable amaranth accessions for various morphological traits in accordance with the DUS guidelines of PPVFRA, New Delhi. The genotypes were characterized for two seasons viz., kharif and summer, wherein same level of expression was observed for the traits. A total of 17 characters were scored, eight in grain amaranths and nine in vegetable amaranths related to vegetative morphology, inflorescence and seed traits. Distinct forms with respect to leaf colour, inflorescence colour, stem colour and other studied traits were observed among the genotypes. The majority of the grain amaranth accessions were green leaved with yellowish green stem, ridged stem surface having yellowish green, erect and dense inflorescence. Seed colour was predominantly creamish. Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index ranged from 1.778 (inflorescence colour) to 0.524 (presence of leaf blotch). Vegetable amaranth accessions had largely medium green leaf blade colour with green inflorescence and green stem. Further, most of the accessions were cutting types with black coloured seeds. Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index in vegetable amaranths varied from high for leaf blade colour (1.529) and stem colour (1.158) to low index for the trait presence of leaf blotch (0.190). Collection, morphological characterization and classification of germplasm helps in identifying distinct genotypes with contrasting characters, which would in turn facilitate to broaden the germplasm base and varietal identification.

Elucidating the formation of structural defects in flax fibres through synchrotron X-ray phase-contrast microtomography

The creation and ultrastructure of kink-bands in flax fibres are key issues for developing more and more performing biobased composite materials. Nevertheless, despite many hypotheses and structural characterisation, the exact origin of kink-bands and the moment they appear remain unexplained. Here, by using cutting-edge techniques such as microtomography, a range of flax stems and fibres, from the green stem to stretched fibres, were morphologically explored. The study shows that all the extracted fibres, whether scutched, combed or stretched, contain significant amounts of kink-bands, which can be identified by the large pores they contain. On the other hand, at the scale of the green or retted stems, tomographic analysis does not reveal any kink-bands. These original observations suggest that the stress undergone by the plants during their growth is not sufficient, without major growth or lodging accidents, to generate these structural defects; the latter are only revealed after mechanical extraction of the fibres. Hypotheses regarding the kink-band appearance deformation levels are also given to complete the observations.

Integration of Transcriptome and Metabolome Reveals the Formation Mechanism of Red Stem in Prunus mume.

Prunus mume var. purpurea, commonly known as “Red Bone”, is a special variety with pink or purple-red xylem. It is famous due to gorgeous petals and delightful aromas, playing important roles in urban landscaping. The regulation mechanism of color formation in P. mume var. purpurea stem development is unclear. Here, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of transcriptome and metabolome in WYY (‘Wuyuyu' accession, red stem) and FLE (‘Fei Lve' accession, green stem), and found a total of 256 differential metabolites. At least 14 anthocyanins were detected in WYY, wherein cyanidin 3,5-O-diglucoside and peonidin3-O-glucoside were significantly accumulated through LC-MS/MS analysis. Transcriptome data showed that the genes related to flavonoid-anthocyanin biosynthesis pathways were significantly enriched in WYY. The ratio of dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) and flavonol synthase (FLS) expression levels may affect metabolic balance in WYY, suggesting a vital role in xylem color formation. In addition, several transcription factors were up-regulated, which may be the key factors contributing to transcriptional changes in anthocyanin synthesis. Overall, the results provide a reference for further research on the molecular mechanism of xylem color regulation in P. mume and lay a theoretical foundation for cultivating new varieties.

Experimental modelling for phenotyping soybean host reaction to Aphelenchoides besseyi

Summary The nematode causing the green stem and foliar retention syndrome of soybean, Aphelenchoides besseyi, is a concern to Brazilian growers, especially in warm and humid climates, where losses can reach 60% of the yields. Management options have not yet been studied properly, but apparently genetic variability is found in soybean genotypes in the resistance to this nematode. However, the correct phenotyping of soybean genotypes is compromised by the scarcity of studies of this pathosystem. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the inoculum densities of A. besseyi and the plant ages at inoculation to obtain the correct phenotyping of soybean genotypes. Experiments were conducted under glasshouse conditions with the soybean ‘Elite’, using a completely randomised design and a factorial scheme (five nematode population densities: 150, 300, 600, 1200 and 2400 nematodes plant−1, and three plant ages at inoculation: 7, 12 and 17 days after planting). Evaluations were performed 35 days after inoculation, extracting nematodes from soil, roots and shoot parts of plants to obtain the final population of the nematodes of each replicate. The inoculum of 150-300 A. besseyi specimens per plant is the most suitable to assess the reaction of soybean genotypes to this nematode as it resulted in the greatest reproduction factors. Population densities higher than 1500 nematodes per plant could lead to misclassification of the host reaction because of the inconsistent reproduction factors obtained.

Soybean development under different Aphelenchoides besseyi and Meloidogyne incognita populations

The green stem Aphelenchoides besseyi and gall Meloidogyne incognita phytonematodes cause soybean yield losses. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of different populations of A. besseyi and M. incognita on soybeans. The experiment had 10 treatment groups [T1: control, T2: A. besseyi (500), T3: M. incognita (2,000), T4: A. besseyi (250) + M. incognita (2,000), T5: A. besseyi (500) + M. incognita (2,000), T6: A. besseyi (250) + M. incognita (4000), T7: A. besseyi (500) + M. incognita (4,000) individuals, T8: A. besseyi (250) + M. incognita (8,000), T9: A. besseyi (500) + M. incognita (5,000), and T10: A. besseyi (1,000) + M. incognita (8,000) individuals] with six replicates. Inoculations were done on day 10 after soybean germination, and evaluations were conducted after 60 d. Plant height, shoot fresh weight, root fresh weight, number of pods (NP), pod fresh weight, number of grains (NG), grain yield (GY), amount of A. besseyi in the shoot, and M. incognita in the roots were analyzed. The 500 A. besseyi + 8,000 M. incognita treatment reduced all variables and led to considerable damage to soybean development. In addition, GY, NG, and NP were reduced in the different nematode population density groups, influencing soybean agronomic characteristics.

의성지역 개나리 수집자원의 이형화주성과 결실 습성에 따른 잎의 형태 및 리그난 성분 차이

Background: Forsythia species is used as an herbal medicine and landscape plant. The fruit setting rate, floral morph (distyly), and morphological characteristics and lignan components of leaves in Uiseong local Forsythia germplasm were investigated to select the elite lines for fruit setting.<BR>Methods and Results: A total of 23 Forsythia germplasm were collected in Uiseong area, Korea. Each germplasm planted in Uiseong was investigated for the rate of fruit set in March and October, floral distyly; pin (long-styled morph) and thrum (short-styled morph), in March, and stem color, leaf length, leaf width, petiole length and leaf serration in July. Additionall, lignan components (matairesinol, pinoresinol, arctigenin, phillygenin and their glycosides) in leaves of each germplasm were analyzed using HPLC-MS. Two leaf types, Leaf I and Leaf II of Forsythia germplasm, were grouped based on fruit set, distyly, leaf shape, chromatogram of lignan components and stem color. Leaf II germplasm had longer ovate leaves with lesser serration and more lignan components than Leaf I germplasm. Most of Leaf II plants had successful fruit set, a pin flower, and green stem. <BR>Conclusions: We confirm that Leaf I germplasm is Forsythia koreana (Rehder) Nakai and Leaf II germplasm is Forsythia viridissima Lindl., consistent with previous results.

FEATURES OF REPRODUCTION AND PROSPECTS FOR THE USE OF INTRODUCED PLANTS OF THE GENUS ACTINIDIA LINDL. IN THE LANDSCAPE GARDENING OF THE RIGHT-BANK FOREST-STEPPE ZONE OF UKRAINE

The state of plantings of species and varieties of actinidia (Actinidia Lindl.) growing on the territory of the Uman National Horticultural University and their suitability for vertical gardening have been investigated and analyzed. It was found that in the green spaces of the university, a significant part was occupied by ornamental trees and shrubs, and plants of promising introduced species and varieties of the genus Actinidia Lindl. were used in landscaping much less common. It has been found out that it is possible to carry out landscaping of the walls of buildings in a short time in a lesser area, as well as isolate individual sections with hedges with the design of landscape gardening structures with the use of plants of new and promising introduced varieties of actinidia and landscape design instruments. The influence of the actinidia plants used in terms of varietal composition on the microclimate of the territory of the Uman NUS was assessed and recommendations were made on the working-out of theoretical proposals for landscaping and agrotechnological methods of growing maternal plants for interior in landscape gardening. It was cleared that the introduced species and varieties of the genus Actinidia Lindl. still remain rare in landscape architecture and forestry due to insufficient knowledge of the biological characteristics of plant growth and development in new cultivation conditions, agrotechnological measures for their own root propagation and cultivation of planting material. It is found that one of the effective methods of propagation of the studied varieties of actinidia in the conditions of the Right-Bank Forest-Steppe Zone of Ukraine is green stem cuttings — by semi-lignified cuttings with leaves. Green stem cuttings of the studied actinidia varieties have a low regenerative ability and are classified as medium-rooted. It has been established that the most important factors inducing the regenerative ability of cuttings and the quality of planting material are the dates of cuttings, the type of cutting and its metamerism, the agrotechnological conditions of rooting, as well as the preparation of cuttings for rooting and methods of treatment with biologically active substances of auxin nature. It has been find out that not all the varieties of actinidia are characterized by high regenerative capacity when rooted by stem cuttings under conditions of finely dispersed moisturizing.

Transgenerational changes in pod maturation phenology and seed traits of Glycine soja infested by the bean bug Riptortus pedestris.

Land plants have diverse defenses against herbivores. In some cases, plant response to insect herbivory may be chronological and even transgenerational. Feeding by various stink bugs, such as the bean bug Riptortus pedestris (Hemiptera: Alydidae), induce physiological changes in soybean, called as green stem syndrome, which are characterized by delayed senescence in stems, leaves, and pods. To investigate the plant response to the bean bug feeding in the infested generation and its offspring, we studied the effects of R. pedestris infestation on Glycine soja, the ancestral wild species of soybean. Field surveys revealed that the occurrence of the autumn R. pedestris generation coincided with G. soja pod maturation in both lowland and mountainous sites. Following infestation by R. pedestris, pod maturation was significantly delayed in G. soja. When G. soja seeds obtained from infested and non-infested plants were cultivated, the progeny of infested plants exhibited much earlier pod maturation and larger-sized seed production than that of control plants, indicating that R. pedestris feeding induced transgenerational changes. Because earlier seed maturity results in asynchrony with occurrence of R. pedestris, the transgenerational changes in plant phenology are considered to be an adaptive transgenerational and chronological defense for the plant against feeding by the stink bug.

The inheritance of betalain pigmentation in Basella alba L.

Basella alba is an underutilized leafy vegetable native to the Indian subcontinent. The therapeutic function associated with the consumption of this vegetable is well known, such as androgenic, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. The plant's fruit and stem are blessed with natural betalain pigments. In the recent years, researchers have developed an increasing interest in the use of betalains as a natural food colorants. In this study, we report the natural variation between the B. alba genotypes for betalain pigmentation and examined its inheritance. To study its inheritance, a cross was made between two contrasting genotypes viz., ‘VRB–48–1′ (Basella alba var. alba) having green stem with snow-white flowers, and ‘VRB–43–1′ (Basella alba var. rubra) producing pigmented stem with red-violet flowers. The parental line ‘VRB–48–1′ had extremely low amounts of betalain pigments (4.26 mg/100 g FW) in the mature fruits, while the genotype ‘VRB–43–1′ had high betalain content (156.42 mg/100 g FW). Pigmented and non-pigmented (green) plants, obtained from crossing of these parental lines segregated in 3:1 in the F2 generation. Our results have shown that the single dominant gene governed purple pigmentation in B. alba. Further, we did not find any recombinant i.e. green plants with red-violet flower or pigmented plants with white flowers/intermediate shades suggesting role of major gene in controlling this trait. This simple inheritance will help in incorporation of this trait in mainstream breeding programme along with green yield. It was also evident from the results that the basal level of the betalain pigment component is always synthesized in the plants, beginning from start of life cycle to maturity. This is the first report of betalain pigment inheritance in B. alba.

English

Amongst the most important agricultural products in Brazil, the soybean stands out, mainly as an export good. One of the end-of-cycle diseases, Anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum truncatum (Schwein.) leads to severe damage to grain quality and yield. The use of natural products as a substitute for conventional pesticides for plant diseases control is an alternative found to reduce food contamination and environmental impacts. However, despite the progress made, much work still needs to be done to enable the safe and effective use of alternative products. Thus, this study aimed to test efficacy of noni essential oil (EO), combined with adjuvants, in the control of anthracnose in soybean plants. Gas chromatography was performed to identify the chemical profile of the EO. In vitro mycelial growth inhibition tests and analyzes on the stimulation of phytoalexin production were also performed. In the field trial, two soybean cultivars submitted to EO were used combined with orange and mineral oils as adjuvants. Octanoic acid (OA) was identified as the major component of EO. There was efficacy in the control of C. truncatum by EO and OA in vitro, as well as the induction of the production of the phytoalexin gliceolin in soybean seedlings with an increase of almost 80% with OA but with no impact on the growth of Trichoderma sp. Between the soybean cultivars tested, Coodetec 2728 IPRO presented lower severity to anthracnose symptoms, however, the cultivar Brasmax Foco demonstrated good tolerance to pathogen&rsquo;s attack maintaining high productivity. Application of fungicides on the cultivar Coodetec 2728 IPRO resulted in a detrimental effect on yield possibly due to induction of the green stem syndrome formation in plants and a harvest delay of 15 days. Key words: Morinda citrifolia L., Glycine max L.; Colletotrichum truncatum, Trichoderma sp, alternative control.

Identification and Characterization of a Mutant PV-PUR Gene Responsible for the Purple Phenotype of Snap Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).

Pod color is a major economic trait of snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), among which the pod with a purple stripe is more attractive to people. A stable purple mutant with purple stripes on the pods was obtained by artificial mutagenesis with the high generation snap bean inbred line ‘A18-1’. In order to reveal the genetic factors and pathways responsible for the purple appearance in snap bean, we performed transcriptome and metabolome analyses using the green stem and yellow pod cultivar ‘A18-1’ and its purple mutant ‘pv-pur’ via 60Co-γ radiation. Transcriptome analysis showed that three genes in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway were differentially expressed, among which the expression level of F3′5′H (Phvul.006G018800) was increased in the mutant ‘pv-pur’, while expression of F3′H (Phvul.004G021200) and ANS (Phvul.002G152700) was downregulated. Anthocyanin-targeted metabonomics analysis showed significant differences in the contents of 10 metabolites between the wild type and mutant plants. Combined analysis of transcriptome and metabolomics showed that one differential metabolite, delphinidin, was related to the differential expression of Phvul.006G024700, Phvul.002G152700, and Phvul.006G018800. Based on the levels of six anthocyanins in wild type and mutant plants, we speculative that the purple appearance of the mutant ‘pv-pur’ is caused by the increased expression of F3′5′H (Phvul.006G018800), the key enzyme in the transformation from dihydroflavanol (DHK) to dihydromyricetone (DHM) in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway. The results lay a foundation for further studies on the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin synthesis in snap bean, and provide a framework for breeding different colors of snap bean.

Integrated Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals Differential Mechanism of Flavonoid Biosynthesis in Two Cultivars of Angelica sinensis.

Angelica sinensis is a traditional Chinese medicinal plant that has been primarily used as a blood tonic. It largely relies on its bioactive metabolites, which include ferulic acid, volatile oils, polysaccharides and flavonoids. In order to improve the yield and quality of A. sinensis, the two cultivars Mingui 1 (M1), with a purple stem, and Mingui 2 (M2), with a green stem, have been selected in the field. Although a higher root yield and ferulic acid content in M1 than M2 has been observed, the differences of flavonoid biosynthesis and stem-color formation are still limited. In this study, the contents of flavonoids and anthocyanins were determined by spectrophotometer, the differences of flavonoids and transcripts in M1 and M2 were conducted by metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis, and the expression level of candidate genes was validated by qRT-PCR. The results showed that the contents of flavonoids and anthocyanins were 1.5- and 2.6-fold greater in M1 than M2, respectively. A total of 26 differentially accumulated flavonoids (DAFs) with 19 up-regulated (UR) and seven down-regulated (DR) were obtained from the 131 identified flavonoids (e.g., flavonols, flavonoid, isoflavones, and anthocyanins) in M1 vs. M2. A total 2210 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained from the 34,528 full-length isoforms in M1 vs. M2, and 29 DEGs with 24 UR and 5 DR were identified to be involved in flavonoid biosynthesis, with 25 genes (e.g., CHS1, CHI3, F3H, DFR, ANS, CYPs and UGTs) mapped on the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway and four genes (e.g., RL1, RL6, MYB90 and MYB114) belonging to transcription factors. The differential accumulation level of flavonoids is coherent with the expression level of candidate genes. Finally, the network of DAFs regulated by DEGs was proposed. These findings will provide references for flavonoid production and cultivars selection of A. sinensis.

The Golden Triangle

The Golden Triangle Nay Saysourinho (bio) Here opium blooms at night, vaporous arms lulling villagers to sleep like a dutiful mother. Here poppies grow in the morning and unfurl before noon. This field is the last poppy field in the Triangle. Why move away? People know a good thing when they see it. The surrounding hills only grow coffee—soft citrus and floral notes, note the coffee sommeliers. No one could have predicted coffee would bring in so much money, even more than heroin, even more than morphine. The world wants to stay awake to see how the Anthropocene ends. In the poppy field, things do not end and they do not begin. The same villagers have lived here for hundreds of years. They wear the same clothes and eat the same food and do the same work they have always done. Sometimes tourists find the village and take photos. The place time forgot, they will tell their friends. It is authentic. Sometimes they take a few flowers back with them, but the petals always turn to plastic outside the Triangle. On the green stem, an inscription like a spell: Made in Tam Pa. It is a mistake, the tourists think. They make their friends guess where the souvenir really came from. The villagers in the Triangle like playing games, too. They draw tigers on lined paper, and the next day the tigers appear. The tourists cannot see the tigers because they are not drawn in their language. Sometimes a tiger will leave on a tourist’s shoulder, but the tourist will not realize it. The tigers do not turn to plastic outside the Triangle. They do not understand whether they are authentic or true or unproven. They simply exist. Numerous times throughout the history of the village such a tiger has returned from its long journey. The villagers throw a feast and sit down to eat as the tiger unspools everything it has learned. Did you know, it tells them, that the king has left? Did you hear about Nixon? Did you hear about the new dams? The Mekong is now gone. Palestine is now free. England has sunk into the ocean. Chocolate doesn’t exist anymore, but everyone remembers the taste of it. [End Page 69] The villagers discuss whether they should plant coffee in order to make more money. They envy the tiger its newfound knowledge, the excitement of the wonders out there. All the movies it has seen, all the books it has read, all the sneakers it has bought. It is tempting. Perhaps, the elders propose, they will plant coffee once the tigers stop returning. Until that time comes, they can rest a little longer. The villagers agree. Yes, they will wait until the tigers no longer return, and when that time comes, the elders will plant coffee and the young ones will leave the Triangle in search of the Great Awakening. They will order espresso and biscotti at the counter and tell one another in hushed tones that the biscotti is a bit stale. [End Page 70] Nay Saysourinho NAY SAYSOURINHO is a writer, literary critic, and visual artist. She was a Rona Jaffe Fellow at MacDowell in 2020 and is currently a Berkeley Fellow at Yale. In addition to the Adina Talve-Goodman Fellowship from One Story, she has received fellowships and scholarships from Kundiman, the Writers Grotto, the Mendocino Coast Writers Conference, and Tin House. Her writing was a recent prize winner at the Tucson Literary Awards and has been published in The Kenyon Review, The Ploughshares Blog, Khôra, and elsewhere. As a Southeast Asian kid growing up in Montréal, my childhood was steeped in Lao oral traditions and Québécois folklore. In time, I came to understand that the transmission of these stories was a conversation that had begun tens of thousands of years ago, from the moment we dreamt of a birdman in Lascaux to the butterfly dress worn by Billy Porter in the latest Cinderella. We hold on to fairy tales because we continue to wrestle with what it means to be human—and humane. What it means to live with uncertainty, with cruelty, with...

Santino’s growth chamber: A chamber for studies with Aphelenchoides besseyi on plants

The soybean green stem and foliar retention syndrome (GFSR) [1], caused by Aphelenchoides besseyi, is reported in Brazilian fields located at the States of Mato Grosso, Pará, Amapá, Tocantins, and Maranhão, which correspond to warm climates with well-defined rainfall patterns when the air humidity is high during several consecutive days. Studies showed that the infection of plants by A. besseyi occurs in regions with a high frequency of rains and under temperatures higher than 28 °C, when the nematode founds adequate conditions to migrate from soil to shoot parts of plants to initiate its parasitism [2]. One of the challenges was the difficulty in simulating the natural conditions for the disease development, which needs luminosity, high temperatures, and moisture. These conditions can be reproduced using modern growth chambers, but these equipment are onerous and scarce in most Brazilian research centers. So, for the studies with A. besseyi and different plant hosts, it is difficult to reproduce the environmental conditions similar to those found in the field where this nematode is reported, especially under the operational and economic points of view. Considering these environmental conditions and the necessity in conducting studies under controlled environments with this pathossystem aiming a detailed investigation about the symptoms and the nematode parasitism, but also to isolate the effects due to exclusively the nematode parasitism instead of other effects that occur under field conditions, especially in crops like soybean, common bean, and cotton [1–4], the objective of this project was to develop a growth chamber for the cultivation of these plants under controlled environmental, simulating the necessary conditions for the GFSR development. For this, we used an environmental chamber [5] as the base to our project, where we could find the important aspects that need to be adjusted to suit our purpose.•We developed a plant growth chamber to be used under greenhouse conditions for the studies with Aphelenchoides besseyi and different host plants.•The soybean green stem and foliar retention syndrome (GFSR) needs specific environmental conditions of humidity and temperature for the development of the characteristic symptoms and for the nematode multiplication in the parasitized plants.•This method simulates adequately the environmental conditions found in the field, since the chamber is installed inside a greenhouse, assuring the reliable observation of the plant behavior in relation to the pathogen and allowing the conduction of experiments of this nature in regions different from those where the disease naturally occurs.

Identification and Characterization of an Early Leaf Senescence Gene ELS1 in Soybean.

Early leaf senescence phenotype in soybean could be helpful to shorten the maturation period and prevent green stem disorder. From a high-density mutation library, we identified two early leaf senescence soybean mutant lines, els1-1 (early leaf senescence 1) and els1-2. The chlorophyll contents of both els1-1 and els1-2 were low in pre-senescent leaves. They degraded rapidly in senescent leaves, revealing that ELS1 is involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis during leaf development and chlorophyll degradation during leaf senescence. The causal mutations in els1 were identified by next-generation sequencing-based bulked segregant analysis. ELS1 encodes the ortholog of the Arabidopsis CaaX-like protease BCM1, which is localized in chloroplasts. Soybean ELS1 was highly expressed in green tissue, especially in mature leaves. The accumulation of photosystem I core proteins and light-harvesting proteins in els1 was low even in pre-senescent leaves, and their degradation was accelerated during leaf senescence. These results suggest that soybean ELS1 is involved in both chlorophyll synthesis and degradation, consistent with the findings in Arabidopsis BCM1. The gene els1, characterized by early leaf senescence and subsequent early maturation, does not affect the flowering time. Hence, the early leaf senescence trait regulated by els1 helps shorten the harvesting period because of early maturation characteristics. The els1-1 allele with weakly impaired function of ELS1 has only a small effect on agricultural traits and could contribute to practical breeding.