Green Space In Relation Research Articles

Combining high-resolution images and LiDAR data to model ecosystem services perception in compact urban systems

In this study, we aim to understand how the provision of ecosystem services (ESS) is spatially distributed within a compact urban system considering the structure and spatial arrangement of green spaces in relation to built-up areas and other infrastructures. For this purpose, we devised an approach to assess the ESS provided by urban green spaces through the integration of social data (i.e., stakeholders’ perception of the multiple benefits of green spaces) with remotely sensed data, such as high-resolution satellite images and Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) point-cloud. We developed a spatially explicit indicator (or metric) called Normalized Difference Green-Building Volume (NDGB), derived from remote sensing, that can be used to predict the way people perceive the ESS conveyed by green spaces in cities. We designed the NDGB metric using the city of Bari, Southern Italy, as a case example by involving four groups of stakeholders (n=202) to assess ten urban green spaces. Our results show a strong positive relationship between the NDGB and the way stakeholders perceive the ESS provided by these urban green spaces. Thus, our indicator accurately expresses the relationship between stakeholders’ perceptions of ESS provided by green spaces and the physical data (i.e., green space structure) produced by remote sensing technology. The green space most highly evaluated by the NDGB indicator, the periurban park “Lama Balice”, was also the one on which all stakeholder group responses converged, including the group of NGOs and associations, which assigned average low scores for perceived ESS across all the green spaces presented in the study. The study was developed using the city of Bari in Southern Italy as testbed. There is a need to further extend and replicate our approach to other urban systems across different regions (e.g., Northern Europe, North America, Asia), especially those which are in the process of pursuing more sustainable green infrastructure planning and development, as they could be inclined to adopt our approach in ongoing decision making processes. We believe our approach can inform planners and decision makers on ESS provision and supply them with evidence of the local co-benefits of green spaces as well as of the spatial distribution of ESS within compact urban systems.

Quality over Quantity: Contribution of Urban Green Space to Neighborhood Satisfaction.

There is increasing evidence that the quality of green space significantly contributes to neighborhood satisfaction and well-being, independent of the mere amount of green space. In this paper, we examined residents’ perceptions of the quality and beneficial affordances of green space in relation to objectively assessed accessibility and usability. We used data from a survey in two neighborhoods (N = 223) of a medium-sized city in the Netherlands, which were similar in the amount of green space and other physical and socio-demographic characteristics, but differed in the availability of accessible and usable green spaces. Results show that residents of the neighborhood with a higher availability of accessible and usable green spaces were more satisfied with their neighborhood. This difference was statistically mediated by the higher level of perceived green space quality. Neighborhood satisfaction was significantly positively related to well-being. However, residents of the two neighborhoods did not differ in self-reported well-being and beneficial affordances of green space. These analyses contribute to a further understanding of how the accessibility and usability of green spaces may increase people’s neighborhood satisfaction. It highlights the importance of perceived quality in addition to the amount of green space when examining the beneficial effects of green space.

Developing Green Infrastructure in a Johannesburg Informal Settlement: Investigating Residents’ Willingness to Pay

Green spaces in relation to low-income informal settlements are critical to sustainable and equitable urban futures. This paper considers the development of green spaces in an informal settlement in Johannesburg, South Africa. It reports a survey investigating the residents’ willingness to pay for the development and use of four relevant components of green infrastructure in the informal settlement. I find out who is willing to pay and how much, if the green spaces are delivered by the state (municipality) as well as non-municipal agents. The survey points to possible areas of innovation on green space development in relation to the urban poor in informal settlements. Consideration of socio-economic equity and inclusion, rights and responsibilities will nevertheless need to accompany the residents’ preference.

Energy saving potential of fragmented green spaces due to their temperature regulating ecosystem services in the summer

Urban green spaces help to moderate the urban heat island (UHI) effects, and can provide important temperature regulating ecosystem services and opportunities for savings in cooling energy. However, because explicit market values for these benefits are still lacking, they are rarely incorporated into urban planning actions. Green spaces can generate a three-dimensional (3D) cool island that may reduce the cooling energy requirements within and around urban areas, but such 3D cooling effect has not been considered in previous studies quantifying energy savings from green spaces. This study presents a new and simple approach to quantify potential energy savings due to the temperature regulating ecosystem services of small-scale fragmented green spaces using the 3D simulation of the summer-day outdoor thermal environment in Nanjing, China. Field survey data and the microclimate model ENVI-met were applied to examine the outdoor 3D thermal environmental patterns at Gulou Campus of Nanjing University under two different scenarios: “with” and “without” green spaces. Modeling results were applied to quantify potential cooling energy savings based on the effect of green spaces on the outdoor urban environment and to calculate the cumulative temperature reduction due to green spaces using a regression model. The results show that, in the horizontal direction, the simulated distribution of wind speed and mean air temperature at 1.5m height were closely related to the spatial distribution of the underlying surface types. Removal of green spaces increased mean air temperature by 0.5°C (33.1°C vs. 33.6°C). In the vertical direction, removal of green spaces had little effect on the near-surface wind field; however, above the surface, the turbulence perpendicular to the main wind direction significantly increased. Quantification of the cooling benefits of green spaces in relation to the mean height of buildings on Gulou Campus yielded 5.2W/m2 cooling energy, saving totally 1.3×104kWh during a single daytime hot summer period. This case study corroborates the importance of green space for cooling and informs city planners and decision-makers on how microclimate is impacted by the loss of green spaces. These findings will facilitate preservation, planning, and design of green spaces to increase urban environmental benefits and to improve the microclimate of urban areas at neighborhood, city, and regional scales.

Quality of and access to green space in relation to psychological distress: results from a population-based cross-sectional study as part of the EURO-URHIS 2 project.

Psychological distress (PD) (mental ill-health) has a frequency between 5 and 25% in urban populations, and there is mounting evidence that access to green space might reduce its occurrence. Evidence suggests that the quality of green space is as important as accessibility in promoting mental well-being. A pilot study for EURO-URHIS 2 allowed investigation of access to green space in relation to PD in a deprived urban population in the UK. An adult urban health indicator questionnaire, including the GHQ-12 and validated questions on access to and quality of green space, was sent to a stratified random sample of 1680 adults drawn from one general practice list in Sandwell, UK. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine associations between attributes of green space and PD adjusting for age, sex and levels of deprivation. There were 578 (35%) completed responses. The reported prevalence of PD [n = 131 (22.7%)] was significantly greater than national England and Wales estimates. As well as accessibility (OR = 0.58; 95% CI = 0.35, 0.96) and sufficiency (OR = 0.12; 95% CI = 0.39, 0.89) of green spaces, having the ability to use them for relaxation and recreation were significantly associated with reduced PD [OR = 0.13 (0.42, 0.94) and OR = 0.11 (0.34, 0.80), respectively]. In addition, a dose-response relationship between number of positive green space attributes and PD was identified (P < 0.05). This population-based study in a deprived urban UK population demonstrates an association, and some dose-response relationship, between access to and quality of green spaces with reduced PD. The cross-sectional design and use of subjective measures limit interpretation of causality. More knowledge is needed on how UK planning affects green spaces and the potential mental health consequences.

Do low-income neighbourhoods have the least green space? A cross-sectional study of Australia’s most populous cities

BackgroundAn inequitable distribution of parks and other ‘green spaces’ could exacerbate health inequalities if people on lower incomes, who are already at greater risk of preventable diseases, have poorer access.MethodsThe availability of green space within 1 kilometre of a Statistical Area 1 (SA1) was linked to data from the 2011 Australian census for Sydney (n = 4.6 M residents); Melbourne (n = 4.2 M); Brisbane (n = 2.2 M); Perth (n = 1.8 M); and Adelaide (n = 1.3 M). Socioeconomic circumstances were measured via the percentage population of each SA1 living on < $21,000 per annum. Negative binomial and logit regression models were used to investigate association between the availability of green space in relation to neighbourhood socioeconomic circumstances, adjusting for city and population density.ResultsGreen space availability was substantively lower in SA1s with a higher percentage of low income residents (e.g. an incidence rate ratio of 0.82 (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.75, 0.89) was observed for SA1s containing ≥20% versus 0-1% low income residents). This association varied between cities (p < 0.001). Adelaide reported the least equitable distribution of green space, with approximately 20% greenery in the most affluent areas versus 12% availability in the least affluent. Although Melbourne had a smaller proportion of SA1s in the top quintile of green space availability (13.8%), the distribution of greenery was the most equitable of all the cities, with only a 0.5% difference in the availability of green space between SA1s containing 0-1% low income households versus those with ≥20%. Inequity of access, however, was reported across all cities when using logit regression to examine the availability of at least 20% (odds ratio 0.74, 95% CI 0.59, 0.93) or 40% (0.45, 0.29, 0.69) green space availability in the more disadvantaged versus affluent neighbourhoods.ConclusionAffirmative action on green space planning is required to redress the socioeconomic inequity of access to this important public health resource.

The soil–water system as basis for a climate proof and healthy urban environment: Opportunities identified in a Dutch case-study

One of the effects of climate change expected to take place in urban areas in the Netherlands is an increase in periods of extreme heat and drought. How the soil can contribute to making cities more climate proof is often neglected. Unsealed soil and green spaces increase water storage capacity and can consequently prevent flooding. The planning of public or private green spaces can have a cooling effect and, in general, have a positive effect on how people perceive their health. This paper reviews existing guidelines from Dutch policy documents regarding unsealed soil and green spaces in the Netherlands; do they support climate adaptation policies? Scientific literature was used to quantify the positive effects of green spaces on water storage capacity, cooling and public health. Finally we present a case study of a model town where different policy areas are linked together. Maps were made to provide insight into the ratio of unsealed soil and the number of green spaces in relation to existing guidelines using Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Maps marking the age and social-economic status of the population were also made. The benefits of green spaces are difficult to express in averages because they depend on many different factors such as soil properties, type of green spaces, population characteristics and spatial planning. Moreover, it is not possible to provide quantifications of the benefits of green spaces because of a lack of scientific evidence at the moment. Based on the maps, however, policy assessments can be made, for example, in which site a neighborhood will most benefit from investment in parks and public gardens. Neighborhoods where people have a low social-economic status have for example fewer green spaces than others. This offers opportunities for efficient adaptation policies linking goals of several policy fields.

Green Space and Stress: Evidence from Cortisol Measures in Deprived Urban Communities

Contact with green space in the environment has been associated with mental health benefits, but the mechanism underpinning this association is not clear. This study extends an earlier exploratory study showing that more green space in deprived urban neighbourhoods in Scotland is linked to lower levels of perceived stress and improved physiological stress as measured by diurnal patterns of cortisol secretion. Salivary cortisol concentrations were measured at 3, 6 and 9 h post awakening over two consecutive weekdays, together with measures of perceived stress. Participants (n = 106) were men and women not in work aged between 35–55 years, resident in socially disadvantaged districts from the same Scottish, UK, urban context as the earlier study. Results from linear regression analyses showed a significant and negative relationship between higher green space levels and stress levels, indicating living in areas with a higher percentage of green space is associated with lower stress, confirming the earlier study findings. This study further extends the findings by showing significant gender differences in stress patterns by levels of green space, with women in lower green space areas showing higher levels of stress. A significant interaction effect between gender and percentage green space on mean cortisol concentrations showed a positive effect of higher green space in relation to cortisol measures in women, but not in men. Higher levels of neighbourhood green space were associated with healthier mean cortisol levels in women whilst also attenuating higher cortisol levels in men. We conclude that higher levels of green space in residential neighbourhoods, for this deprived urban population of middle-aged men and women not in work, are linked with lower perceived stress and a steeper (healthier) diurnal cortisol decline. However, overall patterns and levels of cortisol secretion in men and women were differentially related to neighbourhood green space and warrant further investigation.

The Importance of Temporal and Spatial Vegetation Structure Information in Biotope Mapping Schemes: A Case Study in Helsingborg, Sweden

Temporal and spatial vegetation structure has impact on biodiversity qualities. Yet, current schemes of biotope mapping do only to a limited extend incorporate these factors in the mapping. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the application of a modified biotope mapping scheme that includes temporal and spatial vegetation structure. A refined scheme was developed based on a biotope classification, and applied to a green structure system in Helsingborg city in southern Sweden. It includes four parameters of vegetation structure: continuity of forest cover, age of dominant trees, horizontal structure, and vertical structure. The major green structure sites were determined by interpretation of panchromatic aerial photographs assisted with a field survey. A set of biotope maps was constructed on the basis of each level of modified classification. An evaluation of the scheme included two aspects in particular: comparison of species richness between long-continuity and short-continuity forests based on identification of woodland continuity using ancient woodland indicators (AWI) species and related historical documents, and spatial distribution of animals in the green space in relation to vegetation structure. The results indicate that (1) the relationship between forest continuity: according to verification of historical documents, the richness of AWI species was higher in long-continuity forests; Simpson's diversity was significantly different between long- and short-continuity forests; the total species richness and Shannon's diversity were much higher in long-continuity forests shown a very significant difference. (2) The spatial vegetation structure and age of stands influence the richness and abundance of the avian fauna and rabbits, and distance to the nearest tree and shrub was a strong determinant of presence for these animal groups. It is concluded that continuity of forest cover, age of dominant trees, horizontal and vertical structures of vegetation should now be included in urban biotope classifications.

Urban comprehensive planning – identifying barriers for the maintenance of functional habitat networks

Maintaining biodiversity requires a wise combination of protection, management and recreation of habitats to secure representative and functional habitat networks. As urbanisation is increasing worldwide, town and cities are becoming the most common habitat for humankind. Accordingly, the urban landscape is becoming increasingly important for maintaining biodiversity on site, as well as for understanding the concept of biodiversity in general, and its maintenance in urban landscapes. We evaluated the extent to which Swedish urban planners experience barriers when using comprehensive planning as a tool for the maintenance of biodiversity through the provision of sufficient quantity and quality of green space. All of the six large Swedish cities, having had constant relative population growth since the beginning of the 19th century were chosen as case studies. We first defined a normative model for planning urban biodiversity and operationalised this concept by using landscape ecological principles. Structured in-depth interviews were then carried out with three planners in each city. The respondents were asked about their interest, ability, and knowledge concerning planning for functional networks of green spaces in relation to the normative model. The in-depth interviews with 18 urban planners indicated that legislation was an important driver for green space planning, that they paid attention to new knowledge concerning recreation values and public health, but that biodiversity maintenance was not a high priority. There was a general agreement that local governments lack necessary resources to plan for biodiversity. A majority of the respondents mentioned geographical information systems (GIS) as an important tool to integrate knowledge about biodiversity in the planning process, and to evaluate likely consequences caused by deviations from current structure plans related to an efficient use of urban green spaces to maintain biodiversity. However, an evaluation of the answers revealed that the respondents had actually overestimated their capacity to implement the normative model. To conclude, the unanimous view was that planners were interested in the maintenance of biodiversity, but were limited by knowledge and by personnel lacking suitable qualifications, as well as by inadequate organisations. Only a minority of the respondents thought that local governments should have resources for biodiversity conservation planning. Finally, we discuss how the implementation of biodiversity policies could be improved by better integration of natural and social sciences in education and policy implementation.