Green Space In Relation Research Articles

Is compensation a myth? Modelling the use of public and private urban green spaces in relation to the geographical context

The compensation hypothesis postulates that the absence of green spaces in residential areas leads to a greater use of public green spaces and nature in general. This paper tests this hypothesis by focusing on the use of public and private urban green spaces. A holistic approach is adopted that considers the complexity of residential context and the use of urban, peripheral and private green spaces. A survey was conducted in two medium-sized French cities (Dijon and Besançon) to identify how their green spaces were used and perceived. The residential context was described through multiple spatial and environmental metrics (physical and visual access to nature, noise level, private green space area) that were GIS-referenced to postal addresses. On the basis of that data, the compensation hypothesis was explored using a PLS path model. The results show the absence of compensatory behaviour when considering just the overall relationships between the use of different types of green spaces. However, conditional compensatory behaviours can be detected when allowance is made for other variables (physical and visual accessibility to nature, type of housing, dwelling floor area, noise level). These results remain dependent on the geographical context of the city, with a higher compensation effect where natural areas are less accessible.

Utilizing regression model to characterize the impact of urban green space features on the subjective well-being of older adults

Based on the background of rapid global ageing, research exploring urban green spaces and the subjective well-being of urban residents has become one of the key research interests. However, the evidence for assessing the real benefits of urban green spaces on the subjective well-being of older adults by comprehensively examining the features of urban green spaces is limited. We surveyed older urban green space users (n = 536) aged 60 years and older in Nanjing, China, and evaluated the impacts of spatial, green, and grey features of urban green spaces on older people's overall satisfaction with urban green spaces and subjective well-being. The results of the multiple linear regression model showed a strong association between the three types of urban green space features, overall satisfaction with urban green space, and subjective well-being of older adults. The study results indicated that the grey feature of urban green spaces emerged as the most influential factor (p = 0.004) among the three features of urban green spaces in relation to their effect on the subjective well-being of older adults. This implies that it is essential to focus on the importance of grey s of urban green spaces in the planning and design of urban green spaces for older adults' use of different urban green spaces and their sense of well-being. These results contribute to the development of healthy ageing policies and age-friendly urban green space management strategies in rapid ageing countries around the world.

Beneficial effect of residential greenness on sperm quality and the role of air pollution: A multicenter population-based study

BackgroundPoor sperm quality is a major cause of male infertility. However, evidence remains scarce on how greenness affects male sperm quality. ObjectivesTo assess the associations of residential greenness with male sperm quality and the modification effect of air pollution exposure on the relationship. MethodsA total of 78,742 samples from 33,184 sperm donors from 6 regions across China during 2014–2020 were included and analyzed. Individual residential greenness exposures of study subjects were estimated using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) during the entire (0–90 lag days) and two key stages (0–37, and 34–77 lag days) of sperm development. Contemporaneous personal exposure levels to air pollutants were estimated using a spatio-temporal deep learning method. Linear mixed models were employed to assess the impact of greenspace in relation to sperm quality. The modification effect of air pollution on the greenspace-sperm quality relationship was also estimated. ResultsPer IQR increment in NDVI exposure throughout spermatogenesis were statistically associated with increasing sperm count by 0.0122 (95 % CI: 0.0007, 0.0237), progressive motility by 0.0162 (95 % CI: 0.0045, 0.0280), and total motility by 0.0147 (95 % CI: 0.0014, 0.0281), respectively. Similar results were observed when the model added air pollutants (PM1, PM2.5 or O3) for adjustment. Additionally, specific air pollutants, including PM1, PM2.5, and O3, were found to modify this association. Notably, the protective effects of greenness exposure were more pronounced at higher concentrations of PM1 and PM2.5 and lower concentrations of O3 (all Pinteraction < 0.05). Statistically significant positive effects of NDVI were observed on sperm motility in early spermatogenesis and sperm count in late spermatogenesis. ConclusionsExposure to residential greenness may have beneficial effects on sperm quality and air pollution modifies their relationship. These findings highlight the importance of adopting adaptable urban greenspace planning and policies to safeguard male fertility against environmental factors.

Uneven Distribution of Urban Green Spaces in Relation to Marginalization in Mexico City

The present study examines the spatial distribution and level of accessibility of urban green spaces (UGSs) within the context of Mexico City, with a particular focus on their relationship with marginalization. The study examined five distinct categories of UGSs based on their size and subsequently analyzed their total surface area per capita in relation to their correlation with the marginalization index. The data were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis, and correlations were computed to investigate the relationships between variables. We found 1353 UGSs accessible for public use with a total area of 2643 ha. Seventy-four percent of them had &lt;1 ha of surface area, and 51% were located in only three municipalities that were mostly middle- and high-income. These municipalities concentrated a higher area of green spaces per capita. We found a negative correlation between the marginality index and the area of UGSs per municipality; the lower the marginality index was, the higher the area of green spaces. These results suggest that a bad distribution of UGSs can increase environmental injustice since urban environmental services are unequally distributed, affecting particularly marginalized populations. This research is a valuable contribution to the existing body of knowledge regarding the accessibility of UGSs in Mexico City, particularly in connection to marginalized communities. It emphasizes the significance of this topic in the context of environmental justice, urban sustainability, and the formulation of urban policy decisions. By engaging with these concerns, individuals can strive to foster a city that promotes fairness and well-being for all of its residents.

On-site measurement and numerical simulation study on characteristic of urban heat island in a multi-block region in Beijing, China

The urban heat island (UHI) effect can lead to an increase in winter temperatures in cold regions, which in turn increases energy consumption and air pollution within urban areas. Field measurements of UHI effects can provide high-precision and high-resolution data, making them suitable for investigating the spatial-temporal distribution of UHI. However, there have been relatively few studies on the field testing of UHI effects in multiple blocks, especially those that involve continuous monitoring. Additionally, while many studies have demonstrated the impact factors of UHI intensity, there is a scarcity of research on quantitative and weight analyses of these factors. In this study, on-site measurements of UHI characteristics were carried out in a typical multi-block region in Beijing. The on-site sampling was conducted in both summer and winter seasons for 29 consecutive sampling days with 20 sampling points. The average urban heat island intensity (UHII) during the sampling period was 1.7 ± 1.2 °C in summer and 3.7 ± 1.8 °C in winter. Temperatures measured at different sampling locations varied significantly, with a maximum spatial difference of 7.5 °C in summer and 4.1 °C in winter. Simulation results showed that, in summer, each ±10% change in wind speed, albedo, or solar radiation intensity would cause the UHII to change by ∓0.16 °C, ∓0.21 °C, or ± 0.17 °C, respectively. In winter, the effects of these factors were very limited. The effect weights of wind speed, albedo, and solar radiation intensity on UHII in summer were 31.3%, 36.6%, and 32.1%, respectively. The position of green space in relation to the dominant wind direction of the city would have a greater effect on UHI mitigation in summer than in winter. This study provides a theoretical basis for mitigating UHI effects and is of great significance for sustainable urban design.

The association between urban greenspace and psychological health among young adults in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

IntroductionPsychological disorders are emerging as health priorities in Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically Ethiopia. Urban greenspace — parks, trees, and other vegetation integrated into urban form — may facilitate population psychological health, but is largely understudied outside high-income countries. We explore greenspace in relation to psychological health among young adults in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. MethodGreenspace exposure was calculated using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) derived from publicly available satellite imagery (2018–2019). We used tests of spatial clustering to characterize greenspace distribution. Derived NDVI values were linked to Positive Outcomes for Orphans study participants to explore cross-sectional associations between greenspace exposure and psychological health (measured 2019–2021). Two continuous scores of psychological health were examined: total difficulties from the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and depressive symptoms from the 8-item Patient Health Questionnaire. Multilevel generalized linear regression, nested by administrative units, was used to estimate the association between greenspace and psychological health. We also explored effect modification by gender and having income. ResultsWe found greenspace is spatially clustered in Addis Ababa, with high greenspace density in the northeast region and low greenspace density in the center of the city. Our findings suggest residing in greener areas is associated with fewer emotional and behavioral difficulties (β = −1.89; 95% CI: −3.50, −0.29), but not significantly associated with depressive symptomology (β = −0.61; 95% CI: −2.33, 1.11). We observed stronger associations between greenspace and total difficulties among those reporting any income and among males, and for the association between greenspace and depression symptomology among males. ConclusionWe offer initial exploration into the role of greenspace in psychological well-being in Addis Ababa, with potential implications for urban communities across Sub-Saharan Africa. Further research should continue to explore how the built and natural environment could be leveraged in similar settings to promote population psychological health.

Investigation on urban greenspace in relation to sociodemographic factors and health inequity based on different greenspace metrics in 3 US urban communities

BackgroundStudy results are inconclusive regarding how access to greenspace differs by sociodemographic status potentially due to lack of consideration of varying dimensions of greenspace.ObjectiveWe investigated how provision of greenspace by sociodemographic status varies by greenspace metrics reflecting coverage and accessibility of greenspace.MethodsWe used vegetation levels measured by Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), percent of greenspace, percent tree cover, percent tree cover along walkable roads, and percent of people living ≤500 m of a park entrance (park accessibility). We considered data for 2008–2013 in Census block groups in 3 US regions: New Haven, Connecticut; Baltimore, Maryland; and Durham, North Carolina. We examined geographical distribution of greenspace metrics and their associations with indicators of income, education, linguistic isolation, race/ethnicity, and age. We used logistic regression to examine associations between these greenspace metrics and age-standardized mortality controlling for sociodemographic indicators.ResultsWhich region had the highest greenspace depended on the greenspace metric used. An interquartile range (33.6%) increase in low-income persons was associated with a 6.2% (95% CI: 3.1, 9.3) increase in park accessibility, whereas it was associated with 0.03 (95% CI: −0.035, −0.025) to 7.3% (95% CI: −8.7, −5.9) decreases in other greenspace metrics. A 15.5% increase in the lower-education population was associated with a 2.1% increase (95% CI: −0.3%, 4.6%) in park accessibility but decreases with other greenspace metrics (0.02 to 5.0%). These results were consistent across the 3 study areas. The odds of mortality rate more than the 75th percentile rate were inversely associated with all greenspace metrics except for annual average EVI (OR 1.27, 95% CI: 0.43, 3.79) and park accessibility (OR 1.40, 95% CI: 0.52, 3.75).SignificanceEnvironmental justice concerns regarding greenspace differ by the form of natural resources, and pathways of health benefits can differ by form of greenspace and socioeconomic status within communities.Impact statementComparisons of exposure to greenspace between different greenspace metrics should be incorporated in decision-making within local contexts.

Air pollution and green spaces in relation to breast cancer risk among pre and postmenopausal women: A mega cohort from Catalonia

BackgroundThe association between air pollution and green spaces with breast cancer risk stratified by menopausal status has not been frequently investigated despite its importance given the different impact of risk factors on breast cancer risk depending on menopausal status. ObjectivesTo study the association between air pollution, green spaces and pre and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. MethodsWe conducted a population-based cohort study using electronic primary care records in Catalonia. We included women aged 17–85 years free of cancer at study entry between 2009 and 2017. Our exposures were particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM2.5) & <10 μm (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and percentage of green spaces estimated at the census tract level. Breast cancer was identified with ICD-10 code C50. We estimated cause-specific hazard ratios (HR) for the relationship between each individual exposure and pre and postmenopausal breast cancer risk, using linear and non-linear models. ResultsOf the 1,054,180 pre and 744,658 postmenopausal women followed for a median of 10 years, 6,126 and 17,858 developed breast cancer, respectively. Among premenopausal women, only very high levels of PM10 (≥46 μg/m3) were associated with increased cancer risk (compared to lower levels) in non-linear models. Among postmenopausal women, an interquartile range increase in PM2.5 (HR:1.03; 95%CI:1.01–1.04), PM10 (1.03; 1.01–1.05), and NO2 (1.05; 1.02–1.08) were associated with higher cancer risk. NDVI was negatively associated with decreased cancer risk only among postmenopausal women who did not change residence during follow-up (0.84; 0.71–0.99) or who were followed for at least three years (0.82; 0.69–0.98). DiscussionLiving in areas with high concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 increases breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women while long-term exposure to green spaces may decrease this risk. Only very high concentrations of PM10 increase breast cancer risk in premenopausal women.

Animals in urban green spaces in relation to mental restorative quality

Despite the important roles that animals play in ecosystems, their functions in urban green spaces are often overlooked. To fill this gap, this study explored the effects of four animal species on the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces by comparing observers’ response to pictures with and without animals. The results indicated that swans, deer, and pigeons which were unthreatening to humans could significantly improve mental restoration of observers, and comparatively, swans had the strongest effect. Conversely, unleashed dogs were a potential threat to humans, and decreased the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces. The mechanism of animals’ effects on mental restoration and the differential effects of four animal species were discussed. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study addressing the mental health impacts of animals in landscapes, and the results suggest that “animal-inclusive landscape design” has a positive impact on urban green spaces.

Physical Characteristics of Urban Green Spaces in Relation to Perceived Safety

Safety is an indispensable condition of livable cities. Increasing fine-scaled understanding of the relationship between physical characteristics and perceived safety can provide reliable evidence to guide safety design, which in turn contributes to the livability of cities. To reach this goal, 30 sample sites were selected to represent the diversity of urban green spaces in Xuzhou, eastern China. The environment-related and crime-related perceived safety of these sites during the daytime and evening were evaluated by 717 participants who were invited through a snowballing method. The value of overall perceived safety was decided by the mean score of the two types of perceived safety. The main results include: (1) good maintenance of vegetation, open view, low locomotive accessibility of water, and more aquatic plants can predict a higher overall perceived safety during the daytime; (2) higher illumination and lighting sources in the distance of vision indicate a higher overall perceived safety during the evening; (3) females are more worried about the crime-related perceived safety than males during the daytime or evening.

Monitoring of Spatiotemporal Change of Green Spaces in Relation to the Land Surface Temperature: A Case Study of Belgrade, Serbia

Understanding the relationship between land use and land cover and thermal environment has recently become an emerging issue for urban planners and policy makers. We chose Belgrade, as a case study, to present a cost- and time-effective framework for monitoring spatiotemporal changes of green spaces in relation to the land surface temperature (LST). Time series analysis was performed using Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS imagery from 1991 to 2019 with an approximate 5-year interval (18 images in total). Spectral vegetation indices and supervised land cover classifications were used to examine changes of green spaces. The results showed a fluctuating trend of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and the normalized difference water index (NDWI). The highest values were recorded in 2019, indicating vegetation recovery in the last decade. A significant positive correlation was determined between the spectral vegetation indices and the amount of precipitation during growing season. The land cover classification showed that the share of vegetated and bare land decreased by 11.74% during the study period. The most intensive conversion of green and bare land into built-up land cover occurred in the first decade (1991–2000). To assess spatiotemporal changes in the LST, Landsat Collection 2 Surface Temperature products were used. We found a negative correlation between change in the spectral vegetation indices and change in the LST. This indicates that the reduction in vegetation was associated with an increase in the LST. The municipalities that were the most affected in each decade were also identified with our framework. The findings of this study are of great relevance for actions targeting an improvement in urban thermal comfort and climate resilience.

Residential exposure to air pollution and access to neighborhood greenspace in relation to hair cortisol concentrations during the second and third trimester of pregnancy

BackgroundExposure to air pollution during pregnancy has been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in studies worldwide, other studies have described beneficial effects of residential greenspace on pregnancy outcomes. The biological mechanisms that underlie these associations are incompletely understood. A biological stress response, which implies release of cortisol, may underlie associations of air pollution exposure and access to neighborhood greenspaces with health.MethodsWe explored residential exposure to air pollution and residential access to neighborhood greenspaces in relation to hair cortisol concentrations of participants in a prospective pregnancy cohort study in Flanders, Belgium. Hair samples were collected at the end of the second pregnancy trimester (n = 133) and shortly after delivery (n = 81). Cortisol concentrations were measured in 3-cm scalp-near hair sections, to reflect second and third pregnancy trimester cortisol secretion. We estimated long-term (3 months before sampling) residential exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and black carbon (BC), assessed residential distance to major roads and residential access to neighborhood greenspaces (NHGS). Associations between residential exposures and hair cortisol concentrations were studied using linear regression models while adjusting for season of sampling.ResultsThree-month mean residential NO2 and BC concentrations were positively associated with third pregnancy trimester hair cortisol concentrations (p = 0.008 and p = 0.017). Access to a large NHGS (10 ha or more within 800 m from residence) was negatively associated with third trimester hair cortisol concentrations (p = 0.019). Access to a large NHGS significantly moderated the association between residential proximity to major roads and second trimester hair cortisol concentrations (p = 0.021). Residential distance to major roads was negatively associated with second trimester hair cortisol concentrations of participants without access to a large NHGS (p = 0.003). The association was not significant for participants with access to a large NHGS. The moderation tended towards significance in the third pregnancy trimester (p < 0.10).ConclusionsOur findings suggest a positive association between long-term residential exposure to air pollution and biological stress during pregnancy, residential access to neighborhood greenspaces may moderate the association. Further research is needed to confirm our results.Trial registrationThe IPANEMA study is registered under number NCT02592005 at clinicaltrials.gov.

Prioritizing the provision of urban ecosystem services in deprived areas, a question of environmental justice.

The distribution of urban ecosystem services (UES) is often uneven across socioeconomic groups, leading to environmental justice issues. Understanding the distribution of UES across a landscape can help managers ensure an equitable distribution of services. While many past studies have focused on the distribution of green spaces in relation to socioeconomic variables, this research analyzes the distribution of UES provided by these green spaces. This research quantified air pollution removal, atmospheric carbon reduction, and surface runoff mitigation provided by urban trees in Strasbourg city (France). The provision of these three UES was studied at the census block scale by creating an index of UES delivery, which was contrasted with a constructed social deprivation index. Our results show that there is no significant association between the delivery of UES and social deprivation. Some deprived populations benefit from high UES delivery. Results also suggest that mapping associations between UES delivery and social deprivation should be integrated with future development plans to enhance the equitable distribution of UES. This study provides insights into the French context where studies about the distribution of UES at a small-area level remain lacking.

Urban Weighted Green Index- A study of urban green space in relation to Land Surface Temperature for Lucknow city, India

It is of substantial importance, that the green spaces with regards to the urban areas are quantified in a manner that a planned urban area is developed and utilized with best access to vegetation. There exist various factors which affect built-up areas and corresponding neighbourhood like Vegetation Density (VD), Proximity to high vegetation areas (VDP), Built-up Density (BD), Rise of built-up (HT), and Proximity to high built-up density (BDP). In this study using ©JAXA AW3D DSM and above mentioned factors, Urban Weighted Green Index (UWGI) is generated. To understand the UHI effect, Land Surface Temperature (LST) is generated using radiative transfer equation, which is used for portraying relationship between LST and UWGI for 33 zones and different land use (LU) and land cover (LC) classes of Lucknow Development Authority area. Interdependent effect of all factors was compared and it is seen that VD and VP to different rise areas is affecting areas more than RD and RP, in terms of UWGI and LST both. The increase of one unit in UWGI is affecting the decrease of 2.5 ◦C in various LU classes of Lucknow city.

Urban Transformation and Implementation of Green Development Strategies – Case of Gothenburg

Urban green space strategies in Gothenburg have been recently developed for planning biodiverse and resilient urban environments, where densification is perceived as an opportunity for achieving higher-quality urban green space. Loss of important ecosystem services (ES) such as habitat for species and its fragmentation has long been considered the primary cause for biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. The concept of Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) is currently promoted to provide simultaneous environmental, social and economic benefits, and help to build urban resilience. Yet, there is an observed knowledge and methodological gap on the development links between the built and natural environment. This article aims to discuss modelling urban environments for biodiversity of green areas. The main idea behind the research work presented in this paper is to investigate and explore possibilities to model and develop future integrated built and natural habitats that meet needs of people. This aims to investigate what are the tools that better integrate urban ecosystem services into built development and reflect on planning strategies for Gothenburg’s green urban space. The results show a necessity to promote an approach of going beyond calculating accessibility to green areas, but also taking into consideration planning for qualities of urban green space in relation to city’s shape and urban form. Spatially explicit indicators for ES like Green Area Factor are required to support real urban planning practice for biodiversity conservation and prioritization of green infrastructure in the urban development process. Complexity of urban systems, ecological assessment of quality of “urban green” is an emerging prerequisite in Gothenburg’s planning strategy due to ongoing rapid densification process. There is an expressed need for long term perspectives in planning with new tools and methods for assessing values and benefits associated with urban green space.

Residential proximity to major roads and neighbourhood green space in relation to biological stress in the second trimester of pregnancy in the IPANEMA cohort

GREEN, AIR, LMIC: PECHAKUCHA COMES TO ISEE! Johan Friso Foyer, Floor 1, August 27, 2019, 10:30 AM - 12:00 PM Background/aim: Living near a major road during pregnancy has been associated with adverse birth outcomes. The underlying biological mechanisms however, are poorly understood. Major roads may act as an environmental stressor while natural environments may reduce biological stress. Cortisol is the body’s main stress hormone. The cortisol concentration in scalp hair (HCC) is a retrospective measure of long-term cortisol secretion This study aimed to investigate second trimester HCC in 129 mothers of the IPANEMA pregnancy cohort (Impact of Particulate Matter on mother and babies in Antwerp) in relation to residential proximity to major roads and access to neighbourhood green space (NGS). Method: Residential proximity to major roads and access to NGS were calculated using ArcGIS. NGS was defined as 10 hectares of green space within an 800 m buffer from the participant’s residence. Hair samples were analysed using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography in combination with triple quadropole mass spectrometry. Limit of quantification was 1.0 pg/mg hair. A stepwise multiple regression model was built, HCC and distance to roads were logarithmically transformed. Results: The geometric mean HCC was 3.99 (95% CI: 3.54-4.5) pg/mg hair. In a model, corrected for season of sampling, access to NGS (p=0.019), distance to major roads (p=0.004), as well as the interaction between both (p=0.035) were significantly associated with HCC (R2=12.9%). The model predicted 15% higher HCC when living at an average distance (308 meters) from a major road in the absence of NGS compared to living at the same distance with access to NGS (4.15 (3.19-5.4) versus 3.61 (3.14-4.17) pg/mg hair). Conclusion: Results suggest that proximity to a major road may activate cortisol secretion and biological stress whereas access to neighbourhood green space may have a moderating effect. Our findings, if confirmed, may contribute to evidence-based urban planning towards greener environments.

Characteristics of urban green spaces in relation to aesthetic preference and stress recovery

Urban green spaces contribute to both aesthetic appreciation and health benefits for people. However, most previous researchers have focused on the effects of urban green spaces on aesthetic preference or stress restoration. Little research has involved both simultaneously. This paper uses a direct rating approach based on a single-item measurement to explore the effects of characteristics of urban green spaces on both aesthetic preference and perceived restorativeness of 24 images. These images were created using the photomontage technique by manipulating four dimensions: number of trees, flowers, water and small animals (birds or fish) relative to a baseline photograph taken in China. The results indicated that: (1) Aesthetic preference increased with the increase of number of trees and presence of flowers, water and fish in the images; while the restorative potential increased with the number of trees and presence of flowers or water, but was not affected by fish in the images; (2) Though birds increased fascination, they have no significant influence on both preference and overall restorative potential; and (3) there was a strong positive relationship between aesthetic preference and restorative potential. In regards to the approach, the results suggested that the single-item measurement could be applied to evaluate the perceived restorativeness. Potential applications to the practical design of urban green spaces include that planting more trees and brightly color flowers as well as providing access to clear water may be a reliable method to improve both aesthetic preference and restoration simultaneously.

Nature and Neurodevelopment: Differences in Brain Volume by Residential Exposure to Greenness.

Nature and Neurodevelopment: Differences in Brain Volume by Residential Exposure to Greenness.

Quality of and access to green space in relation to psychological distress: results from a population-based cross-sectional study as part of the EURO-URHIS 2 project.

Background : Psychological distress (PD) (mental ill-health) has a frequency between 5 and 25% in urban populations, and there is mounting evidence that access to green space might reduce its occurrence. Evidence suggests that the quality of green space is as important as accessibility in promoting mental well-being. A pilot study for EURO-URHIS 2 allowed investigation of access to green space in relation to PD in a deprived urban population in the UK. Methods : An adult urban health indicator questionnaire, including the GHQ-12 and validated questions on access to and quality of green space, was sent to a stratified random sample of 1680 adults drawn from one general practice list in Sandwell, UK. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine associations between attributes of green space and PD adjusting for age, sex and levels of deprivation. Results : There were 578 (35%) completed responses. The reported prevalence of PD [ n = 131 (22.7%)] was significantly greater than national England and Wales estimates. As well as accessibility (OR = 0.58; 95% CI = 0.35, 0.96) and sufficiency (OR = 0.12; 95% CI = 0.39, 0.89) of green spaces, having the ability to use them for relaxation and recreation were significantly associated with reduced PD [OR = 0.13 (0.42, 0.94) and OR = 0.11 (0.34, 0.80), respectively]. In addition, a dose–response relationship between number of positive green space attributes and PD was identified ( P < 0.05). Conclusion : This population-based study in a deprived urban UK population demonstrates an association, and some dose–response relationship, between access to and quality of green spaces with reduced PD. The cross-sectional design and use of subjective measures limit interpretation of causality. More knowledge is needed on how UK planning affects green spaces and the potential mental health consequences.

Estimating the willingness to pay for green space services in Shanghai: Implications for social equity in urban China

The willingness to pay can be considered as the fiscal dimension of equity in a planning context. The common solution in most western countries for such fiscal inequity is to apply taxation to rebalance; however, there is no equivalent tax category in China, where residential segregation has already occurred and intensified. This paper re-examines the traditional economic aspects of urban green space in relation to size, type and proximity level, and questions whether green fiscal equity appeared in China by exploring how homebuyers in different price ranges value green space services. Specifically, this paper uses the empirical case of Shanghai, China, to test the hypothesis via the quantile hedonic approach. The results show that people at the lowest percentile level paid a higher value for accessing urban public goods than people at the higher income percentiles, and that wealthy people prefer to purchase green space services privately. These results indicate that the traditional social equity problem may not appear in the Chines context, instead urban China’s problem with social quity may be more related to the privatisation of green space provision, which is only accessible to homeowners and the resulting decline of public green space developments, which primarily affects low-income renters.