Green Revolution Period Research Articles

Agricultural Production Performance on Small Farm Holdings: Some Empirical Evidences from Bihar, India

Immediately after the green revolution period, there was an intense debate on the observed inverse relationship between farm size and per hectare agricultural productivity in India. It was subsequently argued that the higher productivity of small holdings would disappear with the adoption of superior technology, modernisation and growth in general. Recently, National Sample Survey data show that small holdings in Indian agriculture still exhibit a higher productivity than large holdings. This article contributes to the limited literature on farm size and productivity in small land holder's agriculture in Bihar, India. Plot wise panel data of VDSA project are used to reach at precise conclusion. The results provide evidence for a positive relationship between farm size and productivity in case of small land holders’ agriculture and hence, an inverse relationship does not seem to apply within small landholders’ agriculture. A strong positive relationship between farm size and output per hectare is a result of higher use of fertilizer, modern seeds and irrigation sources on comparatively larger land holders than small land holders in Bihar, India. It is mainly due to more uneconomic land holdings of sub-marginal and marginal farmers to have limited access to water resources, quality input and credit. Access to resources and technology must be considered together for any agricultural development programmes for small land holder's agriculture. It is therefore needed to look for ways of improving their access to resources for farming through increased opportunities for earning off farms and off season income or through improved credit market. Hence, small size and land fragmentation are key bottlenecks for the growth of agriculture in Bihar, India. The crop productivity of tiny landholders can be increased through improving their access to institutional financing system, agricultural extension network and farm technology centres. However, promotion of non-farm rural employment seems to be the most appropriate option for increasing crop productivity and improving livelihoods of small landholders in Bihar.

World and Indian Agriculture: Revolutions & Multi Speed Strategies for Future

The act of Malthusian theory of population and his prediction ‘population tended to outstrip the food supply’ did not happen in most parts of the globe and in India due to revolutions in agriculture. This research paper attempts to analyze and demonstrate various agricultural revolutions that occurred in India and across the globe. On this account the history of Indian agriculture has been glorious attributable mainly to green revolution and subsequent revolutions like white, blue, yellow, brown, feather and red revolutions. Similarly, the world super agriculture attributes Neolithic, Arab, Scottish, British and Green revolutions. This study emphasizes that scientists and policymakers can take significant steps towards achieving sustainable food security for the entire world’s populations by adopting the strengths of the various Agricultural Revolutions while seeking to avoid its weaknesses. The production and productivity of Indian all crops were increased at increasing rate in post green revolution period witnessing operation of Law of increasing production.

An analytical study into growth and variability in area, yield and production of wheat in Punjab

The study has analyzed the trends in area, production and yield of wheat of the Punjab state. The study was based on time series data collected from the Statistical Abstract of Punjab for a period of 61 years from 1950–51 to 2010–11. The study period has been divided into three periods: Period-I, 1950–51 to 1965–66, represents the Pre-Green revolution period, Period-II,1966–67 to 1985–86, represents the Green revolution period and Period-III, 1986–87 to 2010–11, is the Post-Green Revolution period. The share of wheat in the total cropped area has increased from 29.59 per cent in 1960–61 to 44.53 per cent in the year 2010–11. The superior varieties’ of wheat introduced during the Green revolution, relative profitability of this crop with minimum production and marketing risks as compared to other crops could be the reason for this sharp increase. The comparison of all periods revealed that Period-II had the highest growth rates of area (3.06%), production (6.24%) and yield (3.15%). The decomposition analysis of growth suggests that yield effect was the major source of growth in Period-I, II and III. For the overall study period, interaction of area and yield (47.72%) was the major contributor to production. Variability in area and yield was the cause for high variability pronounced in production.

Mechanization scenario of agriculture in Punjab

Agriculture in Punjab has undergone a remarkable change as far as mechanization was concerned in the post Green Revolution period. Nearly all the machines and implements such as tractors, combines, electric and diesel engine run tubewells, disc harrows, spray pumps, reapers, etc. have increased exponentially in numbers, barring a few instances where the growth in numbers dipped. As such the agriculture in Punjab is amongst the most mechanized in the country. This was fallout of increasing instances of labour shortages and mechanization seems to be one of the most viable solutions. The mechanization has led to the timeliness of the farm operations and a result both the production and productivity of agriculture on Punjab farms has increased through time. At the same time this lead to an over mechanization of agriculture in the state and resulted into squeeze of farm profits. Over mechanization can be checked by resorting to custom-hiring services which are readily available with a numbers of primary agricultural cooperative societies to undertake various farm operations, but to achieve this farm extension agencies have to acquaint the farm-operators about the benefits of custom-hiring services.

Post-green revolution food systems and the triple burden of malnutrition

Developing country food systems have changed dramatically since the Green Revolution period. At the same time, malnutrition still represents a challenge and is now understood to encompass the three simultaneous dimensions of undernourishment, micronutrient deficiencies, and over-nutrition manifest in overweight and obesity. These changes in food systems and in the understanding of the global malnutrition challenge necessitate fresh thinking about food systems-based strategies to reduce malnutrition. This paper introduces a special section that offers such new perspectives. We discuss trends with respect to indicators of the triple burden of malnutrition to understand the extent of global malnutrition challenges and then relate those to food systems transformation in developing countries.

The Indian and South Korean Green Revolutions

The paper highlights the impact of the Green Revolution on the agricultural sector in India and South Korea. The academic debate on ‘agricultural modernization’ is motivated around the types of developmental processes: the neo-liberalist approach advocating the free-market, market liberalization and the role of the developmental state. The paper outlines two major questions: the role of the State during the Green Revolution period in India and South Korea after the 1970’s in promoting agricultural development, and the effectiveness of state-induced interventionist policies. Additionally, analyzing the issues of poverty, technological backwardness, and social issues in the two countries through a framework of state cooperation and institutional change allows us to compare the success of the Green Revolution in the two countries from a qualitative standpoint. Clearly, the South Korean Green Revolution was more effective than the Indian Green Revolution due to the role of heavy state planning and success of effective policy.

India’s Self, Cross & Often Cross Pollinated Crops ?n The Global Crop Production: Mendelian variation Perspectives

Global agricultural growth has been slowing down. Crop production constitutes lion share of agricultural output. Empirical studies show that over the 40 years, crops growth rates in terms of yield gains and total production has been impressive but not substantial. This is mirroring in general in most of the developing countries and in India in particular. Crop plants originated from wild species through Mendelian variation, inter-specific hybridization or polyploidy. Genetic diversity plays an important role in crop improvement because hybridization between lines of diverse origin generally displays a greater heterosis than between, closely related strains. Infect, genetic diversity is more in cross-pollinated crops compared to self-pollinated crops. Until now, researchers and public are dealing with the agricultural production performance under cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibber crops and so on but there is no (limited) study analyzed based on Mendelian variation. So this study uses new way of analyzes based on Mendelian variation perspective to study the production performance and growth trends of crops under self, cross and often cross-pollinated crops. The present paper is an attempt to examine critically the compound growth rates of area, production and productivity during distinct epochs in the agricultural development of India. Further, focus on the performance status of India’s major crops vis-a-vis the top three crop productivity nations of the world with special reference to self, cross and often cross-pollinated crops for the period of 1950-51 to 2011-12. Essentially, such a comparison will provide insights regarding the magnitude of the yield-gap that countries having low productivity need to bridge. A comparison of India with other nations reveals that India is second in the rice, wheat and groundnut production. The production differences between India and those nations are substantial in cross and often cross-pollinated crops compare to self-pollinated crops. However, the productivity differences between India and high productivity countries are more in cross-pollinated crops followed by self and often cross-pollinated crops. India needs to explore comparative yield advantages in cross-pollinated crops. Rice and wheat are the two principal crops grown in India. Though cross pollinated and often cross pollinated crops such as maize, sugarcane, cotton and tobacco hold promise for the future, the incessant area expansion under rice and wheat have relegated these crops to the background. In India, compound growth rates reflect that the pivot of green revolution as wheat. This is reflected by the crop growth rate of 5.65% during green revolution period. All through wheat productivity increased at increasing rates of 1.27%, 2.67% and 2.97% indicates technological breakthroughs in wheat production. Similarly, cotton productivity also increased at increasing rates of 2.04%, 2.54%, and 3.75%. To conclude, among self-pollinated crops; India stands second in paddy, wheat, groundnut and first in jute production. But in terms of productivity India trails behind higher productive countries. This calls for steps to enhance productivity. Further, scientists should give more emphasis on cross-pollinated crops. Bureaus of plant genetic resources must preserve and take steps to enhance genetic diversity of these crops. Planners and policy makers must have vigilance in land allocation and price fixation based on Mendelian variation of crops.

Tri-giant leap from red to black and then to green revolution in China in one century

中国现代革命的发展历程可以明显分为3 个阶段: 第1 阶段是“红色革命”, 从1921 年中国共产党成立到1949 年中华人民共和国成立; 第2 阶段是以发展工业革命为代表的“黑色革命”, 从1949 年新中国成立开始到2000 年中国基本进入小康初级阶段; 第3 阶段是2000~2010 年建设资源节约型和环境友好型社会的“绿色革命”。中国在不到100 年内实现了从“红色革命”到“黑色革命”再到“绿色革命”的三大跨越。中国未来必须走以清洁能源和再生能源、绿色制造和绿色农业为主的低碳经济发展的“绿色革命”之路, 才能保障生态环境改善和食品安全并可持续发展。

India’s Agricultural Products Exports: An Overview

India’s agricultural growth during 61years period of Independence remains impressive at 2.7 percent per annum. Around two – third of this production growth is aided by crop productivity gains. The need based strategies followed since independence and intensified since mid – sixties mainly focused on feeding the growing population and making the country self sufficient in food production. Agricultural growth, measured as the annual rate of growth in net domestic product, increased from 1.9 percent per annum before the Green Revolution period (1950-1951 to 1966-1967) to 2.3 percent during the first phase of the Green Revolution (1966-1967 to 1980-1981). The growth rate accelerated further to 3.1 percent during the second phase of the Green Revolution (1980-1981 to 2000-2001). At the same time, the share of agriculture in total GDP has fallen from about a little over half in the early 1950s to around one-fourth in the late 1990s. Similar changes have occurred in the country’s export basket as well. The share of agricultural exports in total exports of the country fell from 44 percent in early 1960s to about 14 percent in the late 1990s

A Study of Growth and Fluctuation in Crop Output in India during Post Green Revolution Period

The present paper examines statewise (i) growth rates and fluctuations in terms of total agricultural production in India during 1970-1971 to 2000-2001; (ii) relationship between growth and fluctuation; (iii) decomposition of output growth into area growth and productivity growth; and (iv) factors influencing output growth and fluctuation during the post green revolution period. The broad findings of this study include: (i) a tendency towards deceleration in the growth of total agricultural production in India in recent years; (ii) tolerable impact of green revolution on crop-output fluctuation; (iii) absence of definite pattern with regard to the association between growth and fluctuation, and; (iv) the major driving force behind the output growth and fluctuation being productivity hence technological improvement.

Shift in Buffalo Population and Composition in relation to Cattle during Post Green Revolution period in Andhra Pradesh, India

Andhra Pradesh is an agrarian state located in peninsular India with semi-arid tropical climate; divided into three geo-political regions viz. Coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema and Telangana. Regional differences in agro climatic conditions and irrigation potential resulted in regional imbalances in overall development. Agricultural production in Andhra Pradesh is dominated by small and marginal farmers who practice traditionalmixed farming system. Major changes that took place during green revolution phase lead to increased irrigation potential, shifts in crops and cropping pattern, farm mechanization and fragmentation of land holding had direct impact on livestock sector. Cattle were predominant in the state during pre-green revolution period except in Coastal Andhra. Among cattle 44% were males, emphasizing their role as draft animal. By 2003, it was reduced to < 40% except in Telangana region, while proportion of females remained static or decreased due to changes in crops and cropping pattern, decrease in fodder availability from crop residues and mechanization. During this period, buffalo population has increased (>15 %). Among buffaloes, proportion of females and young stock recorded an increase of about 20% indicating shift in farmer’s preference for milch buffaloes. The increase in proportion of male cattle; female and young buffaloes in Telangana indicate that farmers in this region prefer to keep cattle for draft and buffaloes for milk production. Spatial and temporal trends along with shifts in composition in cattle and buffaloes are discussed.

Marketing Practices and Distribution System of Rice in Punjab, India

The study focuses on the marketing practices, market structures, and firms' motives for vertical co-ordination of the paddy-rice distribution system during the post green revolution period in the Punjab state of India. The study is based upon secondary data taken from several published sources and intensive interviews with the market agents in the entire distribution chain from growers to the retailers. Study highlighted the emergence of public sector as a giant player in the paddy (non-basmati) wholesale markets, unscrupulous practices for paddy/rice supplies, wide disparities in the issue prices for the below and above poverty line families, reduced off take from the public distribution system, launching of several schemes to off load excessive stocks, and improve market efficiency. Open market segment of the industry is highly fragmented wherein a large majority of the market agents have confined at the levels they can be best managed, vertical co-ordination plays a pivotal role to cope up with market imperfections and supply agents constitute a strategic link for rice sales. However, private milling gains momentum particularly during the downward phase of the industry due to increased profitability.

Income dynamics in Tamil Nadu, India from 1971 to 2003: changing roles of land and human capital

AbstractThis article examines the changing role of physical and human capital in income dynamics in Tamil Nadu, India, using detailed daily records of farming households from 1971 to 2003. We find that income growth until the early 1990s is attributed to the rice Green Revolution and the associated development of nonrice farm sector. Further growth after the 1990s became possible due to the rapid nonfarm sector development that has been stimulated by the liberalization of Indian economy since 1991. In accordance with this change in income structure, the importance of physical and human capital has changed. Human capital was important in the early 1970s to take advantage of the rice Green Revolution technology. Once the new technology became standard among farmers, human capital became an insignificant factor. The importance of human capital has revived in a different manner in recent years firstly because it has increased farmers' access to nonfarm job opportunities, and secondly because farm management has become more knowledge intensive in the face of increasing scarcity of labor and water. The contribution of physical capital increased during the Green Revolution period, while it started declining after that. The changing mechanism is characterized as the shifting importance from physical to human capital in accordance with the changing engines of income growth from the Green Revolution to the development of nonfarm sector.

PRODUCTIVITY IMPACT OF THE MODERN VARIETIES OF RICE IN INDIA

The present paper analyzed the long-term yield growth and total factor productivity (TFP) growth by applying Tornqvist-Theil index method for two periods, namely, 1970–85 (early Green Revolution) and 1986–2000 (late Green Revolution), for major rice-growing states of India. The yield data shows an increasing long-term growth trend throughout the Green Revolution period in irrigated states where modern variety (MV) adoption was nearly complete. However, yield advances started to slow down for intensive irrigated rice systems in the 1990s, whereas rainfed ecosystems have increased during the late Green Revolution period. The domestic spillovers of MV from irrigated to rainfed states is likely to be one of the contributing factors to increased TFP growth in ranifed areas after the 1980s. This implies that the MV of rice developed for irrigated ecosystems have also benefited substantially the rainfed-dominant eastern Indian states in the long run where partial irrigation facilities such as shallow tube wells were created after the mid-1980s.

Bio intensive Agronomy: A paradigm shift in agronomic research

The term paradigm shift was first introduced by Thomas Kuhn in his highly influential landmark book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Kuhns book shows how almost every significant breakthrough in scientific en- deavor is first break with tradition, with old ways of thinking, with old paradigms. The word paradigm comes from the Greek. It was originally a scientific term, and is more commonly used today to mean model, theory, perception, assumption, or frame of reference. In more general sense, its the way we see the world- not in terms of our visual sense of sight, but in terms of perceiving, understanding and interpreting. In pre green revolution period, the plant architecture of the cultivated cereal crops was long duration and tall. These plants were not responsive to input use i.e. with application of fertilizers and irrigation, they used to be lodged. Most of our agriculture was rainfed. Agronomic research therefore was revolving around increasing yield under this scenario available at that part of time. Simple fertilizer trial, tillage practices to conserve moisture and control weeds and mixed cropping were the main aspects of research. Farming was done for subsistence. Yields were sustained at low levels. Then, there was a breakthrough. Plant architecture was changed. Short duration dwarf varieties came into existence. Agronomic research also shifted from simple fertilizer trials to complex fertilizer experiments, mono- cropping to multiple cropping and scheduling irrigation. Use of herbicide increased to control weeds. With the expansion of irrigation, scheduling of irrigation became main focus and legumes went out of the cultivation and cereal- cereal cropping became predominant. Spread of rice- wheat cropping system in Indo-Gangetic Plain region is the glar- ing example of this. Due to this cereal-based crop rotation, natural resources started degrading and weeds de- veloped resistance to herbicides. Factor productivity started declining. Presently these are our cultivation prac- tices i.e. our convention, which is chemical based and input intensive, this we wish to change to bring bio-in- tensive agronomic practices, which will include massive use of biomanures, biofertilizers and biopesticides. The research on rhizospheric engineering and carbon sequestration has to be strengthened to improve the soil health and nutrient use efficiencies. Rhizospheric engineering refers to bringing changes in root architecture by modifying planting methods and crop geometry and also improving root zone soil profile through rhizodeposition. In irrigated ecosystem, where legumes could not be introduced due to their sensitivity to water, sugarcane is to be brought in the system, because several beneficial microorganisms are associated with its roots, which mobilizes soil materials. Also, large quantity of root mass of sugarcane upon decomposition adds substantial quantity of organic matter to the soil.

Productivity Growth and Sustainability in Post-Green Revolution Agriculture: The Case of the Indian and Pakistan Punjabs

This article attempts to determine the long‐term productivity and sustainability of irrigated agriculture in the Indian and Pakistan Punjabs by measuring trends in total factor productivity for production systems in both states since the advent of the Green Revolution. These measurements over time and across systems have resulted in three major findings. First, there were wide spatial and temporal variations between the two Punjabs. Although output growth and crop yields were much higher in the Indian Punjab, productivity growth was higher by only a small margin. Moreover, the lowest growth in productivity took place during the initial Green Revolution period (as opposed to the later intensification and post–Green Revolution periods) and in the wheat‐rice system in both states. The time lag between adoption of Green Revolution technologies and realization of productivity gains is related to learning‐induced efficiency gains, better utilization of capital investments over time, and problems with the standard methods of productivity measurement that downwardly bias estimates, particularly during the Green Revolution period. Second, input growth accounted for most of the output growth in both Punjabs during the period under study. Third, intensification, especially in the wheat‐rice system, resulted in resource degradation in both Punjabs. Data from Pakistan show that resource degradation reduced overall productivity growth from technical change and from education and infrastructure investment by one‐third. These findings imply the need for policies that promote agricultural productivity and sustainability through public investments in education, roads, and research and extension; and that reduce resource degradation by decreasing or eliminating subsidies that encourage intensification of inputs.

Physiological and Genetic Changes of Irrigated Wheat in the Post–Green Revolution Period and Approaches for Meeting Projected Global Demand

ABSTRACTGlobal demand for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is growing faster than gains in genetic yield potential are being realized, currently a little under 1% per year in most regions. Improvement in yield of semidwarf wheat has generally been associated with increased harvest index (HI) and grain per square meter. For CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) varieties released between 1962 and 1988, yield increase was also associated with higher flag‐leaf photosynthetic rate and related traits, but not higher biomass. Nevertheless, significantly higher biomass has been reported in more recent CIMMYT lines. Improved HI is associated with higher N use efficiency (yield per unit of available N) and improved yield of semidwarf lines is expressed at high and low levels of N input. Where interplant competition for light and soil factors are manipulated, yield improvement is associated with adaptation to high plant density. Studies have confirmed that the juvenile spike growth phase is critical in determining both grain number and kernel weight (sink) potential. Improving assimilate availability during this stage, perhaps by lengthening its relative duration, may be one way to improve yield potential. Traits that could potentially be exploited for improving assimilate (source) capacity include early vigor, stay‐green, leaf‐angle, and remobilization of stem reserves. Use of alien chromatin is a successful approach for introducing yield‐enhancing genes into elite genetic backgrounds. Examples include the 1B/1R chromosome translocation from rye (Secale cereale L.), and more recently the LR19 segment from tall wheatgrass [Agropyron elongatum (Host) P. Beauv.] Improving the efficiency of early‐generation selection may be another strategy for raising yield potential by increasing the probability of identifying physiologically superior lines by techniques such as infrared thermometry and spectral reflectance.

Returns to wheat breeding research in Nepal

AbstractReturns to investment in wheat breeding research in Nepal were estimated for two periods: (1) the Green Revolution period (1960–1990), when modern semidwarf wheat varieties first appeared and spread throughout the country, and (2) the post‐Green Revolution period (after 1990), when first‐generation modern varieties will be replaced by newer materials. Major benefits of the Nepalese wheat breeding program have included maintenance of disease resistance and faster dissemination of exotic germplasm. Attractive rates of return to investment in wheat breeding have been due in part to Nepal's ability to capture spillover benefits from neighboring countries and from international agricultural research centers.

Returns to wheat breeding research in Nepal

Returns to investment in wheat breeding research in Nepal were estimated for two periods: (1) the Green Revolution period (1960–1990), when modern semidwarf wheat varieties first appeared and spread throughout the country, and (2) the post-Green Revolution period (after 1990), when first-generation modern varieties will be replaced by newer materials. Major benefits of the Nepalese wheat breeding program have included maintenance of disease resistance and faster dissemination of exotic germplasm. Attractive rates of return to investment in wheat breeding have been due in part to Nepal's ability to capture spillover benefits from neighboring countries and from international agricultural research centers.

Agricultural Productivity Growth in Pakistan and India: A Comparative Analysis (Distinguishedl Lecture)

Estimates of partial factor productivity growth for rice and wheat in India and Pakistan have shown relatively rapid growth in yields per hectare since adoption of modem rice and wheat varieties began in the mid-to-Iate 1960s [Byerlee (1990); Rosegrant (1991)]. Yields per hectare for rice and wheat grew slowly prior to the green revolution, then increased dramatically (Table 1). In Pakistan, yield growth from 1965 to 1975 was particularly rapid, but declined sharply after that. Indian yields grew more slowly than in Pakistan in the early green revolution period, but higher yield growth was sustained in India after 1975.