Chrysopidae Research Articles

Chrysopidae are a family of Neuroptera of significant importance in biocontrol against agricultural pests because of their predatory larvae. Currently, the taxonomy of Chrysopidae lacks a comprehensive revision, which impedes the exploration of species diversity as well as the selection and the conservation of green lacewings as biocontrol agents. We have established a DNA barcode reference library of the Chinese green lacewings based on an approximately complete sampling (95.63%) in 25 of the 34 provincial regions in China, comprising 1119 barcodes of 25 genera and 197 species (representing 85% genera and 43.62% species from China). Combining other 1049 high quality green lacewing DNA barcodes, we first inferred the optimal threshold of interspecific genetic divergence (1.87%) for successful species identification in multiple simulated scenarios based on present data. We further inferred the threshold of genetic divergence (7.77%) among genera with biocontrol significance. The inference and performance of the threshold appears to be mainly associated with the completeness of sampling, the proportion of closely related species, and the analytical approaches. Six new combinations, Apertochrysa platypa (Yang & Yang, 1991) comb. nov., Apertochrysa shennongana (Yang & Wang, 1990) comb. nov., Apertochrysa pictifacialis (Yang, 1988) comb. nov., Apertochrysa helana (Yang, 1993) comb. nov., Plesiochrysa rosulata (Yang & Yang, 2002) comb. nov., and Signochrysa hainana (Yang & Yang, 1991), are proposed according to integrative species delimitation. Our library and optimal threshold will effectively facilitate the exploration of species diversity of green lacewings. Our study also provides a methodological reference in molecular delimitation of other insects.

Comparative toxicity of coffee insecticides to the green lacewing Chrysoperla externa in laboratory and persistence trials

Tonic immobility is a passive antipredator strategy employed late in the predation sequence that may decrease individual mortality in prey animals. Here, we investigate how energetic state and genetic predisposition influence antipredator decision-making in green lacewing larvae, Chrysoperla plorabunda (Fitch), using simulated predatory encounters. We demonstrate that tonic immobility is a plastic response influenced by energetic resource limitation. Larvae exposed to 1 or 2 days of food deprivation initiate tonic immobility more often and with less physical provocation than individuals fed ad libitum. Recently molted individuals exposed to food deprivation, the individuals most energetically challenged, engage in tonic immobility at a higher rate than any other group. We also find that variation in antipredator strategy between individuals is partly the result of within-population genetic variation. We estimate the propensity to enter tonic immobility to have a broad-sense heritability of 0.502. Taken together our results suggest that larval lacewings under energetic stress are more likely to engage in tonic immobility. Yet, energetic state does not explain all within-population variation, as individuals can have a genetic predisposition for tonic immobility.

Green lacewing (Chrysoperla lucasina) is well known for its polyphagous predator larvae which are commonly used in pest’s biological control worldwide. In Tunisia, this auxiliary occurs in the nature in association with several pests but it has never been mass reared and released in biological control programs. Hence, the chrysopid species C. lucasina was chosen for an attempt of rearing in order to strengthen its natural populations. The study was carried out in the insectarium of the company ControlMed specialized in Trichogramma parasitoid production. All equipment used for green lacewing larvae and adult rearing was newly designed for this study. Two diets were given to larvae and adults to assess their biological performances. The first diet was based on pollen for adults and eggs of Ephestia kuehniella for larvae. The second diet consisting of a pasty mixture of honey, yeast and eggs of E. kuehniella, was supplied to adults and larvae. The laboratory rearing conditions were kept constant with 26 ± 2°C, 65 ± 5% RH and a photoperiod of 16L: 8D. The diets based on pollen and E. kuehniella eggs gave the best biological parameters for both adults and larvae. This study which allowed to design a simple technique to rear green lacewing based on affordable material, is a first step for developing a mass rearing of chrysopids in Tunisia. However, further improvements are required for adult and larvae diets to increase reproductive and developmental performance, as well as an economic feasibility study.

Green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) are predators commonly found in coffee plantations in Brazil that can serve as important biological control agents against insect pests such as the coffee leaf miner, Leucoptera coffeella (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae). However, the efficacy of different lacewing species in controlling L. coffeella needs to be evaluated before they are used in augmentative biological control programs. Here, laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of the L. coffeella developmental stage on the functional response of 3 species of green lacewings: Chrysoperla externa, Ceraeochrysa cincta, and Ceraeochrysa cornuta. The attack rate, handling time, and the number of prey attacked during 24 h with different densities (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 individuals) of either L. coffeella larvae or pupae were recorded for each of the 3 lacewing species. Based on logistic regression models, all 3 predators showed a Type II functional response when consuming both larvae and pupae of L. coffeella. All 3 species also had similar attack rates (0.0091 larva/h and 0.0095 pupa/h), handling times (3.5 and 3.7 h for larvae and pupae, respectively), and estimated number of prey attacked during the observation period (6.9 larvae and 6.6 pupae) for L. coffeella larvae and pupae. Therefore, our laboratory studies show that the 3 green lacewings Ch. externa, Ce. cincta, and Ce. cornuta have potential for the biological control of L. coffeella, although these results need to be confirmed under field conditions. These findings have implications for the selection of lacewings for augmentative L. coffeella biocontrol.

Among the natural enemies, the larval stage of green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea Stephens (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) is the most commercialized and prominent predator on many soft-bodied insects like juveniles of aphids, whiteflies, thrips, mealybugs and eggs of lepidopterans, where adults feed only nectar, pollen, and honeydew. Despite, many factors influencing insect endurance, abiotic factors such as temperature and photoperiod are the main components when insects grew under a controlled atmosphere. The observation taken on oviposition revealed that rearing adult insects at temperature 24 °C with a photoperiod of 18:6 hours (Dark: Light) conditions produced the highest quantity at an average of 620.9 ± 0.85 eggs/day/100 insects respectively. Data on adult longevity showed that adult life extended up to 43.4 ± 0.22 days when reared at temperature 22 °C with a photoperiod of 18:6 hours (Dark: Light).

Alsendi, A., A.A. Kareem, M. Havasi and Gh. Golmohammadi. 2023. A Study on the Toxicity and Sublethal Concentrations of Three Insecticides on the Population Dynamics of Green Lacewing Chrysoperla carnea Stephens. Arab Journal of Plant Protection, 41(1): 28-36. https://doi.org/10.22268/AJPP-41.1.028036 The study was carried out to evaluate toxicity and sublethal effects of lufenuron, novaluron, and lambda-cyhalothrin on natural enemies such as Chrysoperla carnea. All sub-lethal concentrations caused a significant decrease in oviposition period, total fecundity, longevity, and total life span of C. carnea compared to the control. Maximum and minimum mean lifespan of C. carnea individuals were observed in the untreated group and LC30 concentration of novaluron. Total fecundity varied from 153.47 offspring/individual in treatment with LC30 novaluron to 300.12 offspring/individual in the control treatment. The highest value for intrinsic and finite rate of increase (r, λ) was obtained by the concentration of lambda-cyhalothrin. The net reproduction rate (R0) reached its lowest level in novaluron treatment. As a result, the effects of sublethal concentrations of lufenuron, novaluron, and lambda-cyhalothrin on C. carnea were assessed and discussed to design improved integrated management programs. Keywords: Integrated pest management, side effects, aphidophagous predators, natural enemies.

The objective of this research was to compare the toxicity of reduced doses and enzymatic activity associated with insecticide tolerance to abamectin and profenofos on Chrysoperla carnea Stephens and its prey Bactericera cockerelli Sulc. Residual toxicity was measured at 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0% of the recommended dose of abamectin and profenofos for controlling B. cockerelli. Measured were α-esterases, β-esterases, glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), and oxidase content of larvae and nymphs of C. carnea and B. cockerelli exposed to the insecticides. The three abamectin concentrations killed more nymphs of the pest than did larvae of green lacewing. Profenofos at 1.0% concentration was very toxic to the pest and its predator. At concentrations of 0.5 and 1.0, fewer died and was similar for both species. Abamectin killed fewer C. carnea than did profenofos at the three doses. Enzymatic activity of α and β-esterase was greater for C. carnea compared with B. cockerelli exposed to abamectin and profenofos. Activity of the enzyme glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and oxidase content where greater for B. cockerelli than C. carnea. The study demonstrated that abamectin was less toxic to C. carnea and more to B. cockerelli, suggesting the insecticide was very selective, which could be related to greater esterase enzymatic activity.

Mealybugs (Phenacoccus solenopsis) is a diverstating insect pect of agriculture crops, vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants. In the current study, the impact of synthetic pesticides (malathion, profenophos, and bifenthrin), organic plant extracts (neem, tobacco and eucalyptus) and natural enemies such as lady bird beetle (Coccinella septempunctata), brumus beetle, (Brumus suturalis), spider (Cheiracanthium melanostomus) and green lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea) was examined on the mortality rate of mealybug. The maximum mortality rate was recorded in profenofos followed by bifenthrin and malathion, respectively. The efficacy of neem extract was recorded higher as compared to tobacco and eucalyptus. Lady bird beetle was recorded the efficient natural enemy of the mealybug as compared to green lacewing, brumus beetle and spider. The inorganic pesticides, organic plant extract and natural enemies have great potential to reduce the population of mealy bug

We investigated the accumulation of energy substances, dynamics of flight muscle development, changes in energy substances accumulation, and flight muscle structure after flight activities in female adults of the green lacewing Chrysoperla sinica (Tjeder), a common natural enemy of various insect pests in China. Virgin individuals were chosen at 24, 72, and 120 h after eclosion for energy substance determination and flight muscle observation in this study. Individuals with strong flight ability at 72 h after eclosion were selected for tethered flight assays, followed by detection of energy substances, and flight muscle observation. The results showed that virgin female adults had the highest fat content 72 h after eclosion. Sarcomere length and myofibril diameter changed significantly with age, with the lowest at 24 h after eclosion. With an increase in flight distance, the fat and glycogen contents, sarcomere length, and volume fraction of the transverse tubular system (T-system) decreased and myofibril diameters increased. The volume fraction of the mitochondria did not significantly change, but the structure of the mitochondrial membrane was destroyed, inclusions were reduced, and cavities appeared. The reserves of energy substances, especially lipids, are closely related to the flight ability of C. sinica. The observational results of both flight muscle structure and morphology of mitochondria build a strong relationship with flight behavior. This research should help reveal the regulatory mechanism of flight activity of C. sinica.

Arthropod natural enemies (ANEs) play an indispensable role in maintaining the balance for plant communities that also significantly affects the ANE diversities not only by supporting herbivorous prey, but also by providing habitats and floral food resources. Studying the diversity of ANEs is thus vital to develop an understanding of sustainable pest control. Relationships of the vegetation diversity (including richness, coverage, and Shannon–Wiener diversity) with associated arthropod aphidophagous natural enemies (AANEs) and their groups under Pinus tabuliformis of different distances were analyzed by non-metric multidimensional scaling (metaMDS). Our results indicated that the vegetation richness affects AANEs at a small scale, while the vegetation structure affects it at a large scale. The richness and abundance of AANEs and the abundance of green lacewings (GLs) and aphid parasitoids (APs) were positively related to neighboring tree richness. But the richness of AANEs and aphidophagous ladybirds (ALs) were negatively associated with nearby tree coverage, as well as AANE richness with close-up shrub coverage, while the abundance of AANEs, ALs, and GLs possessed a negative and hump-shaped relationship with nearby tree coverage, as well as the abundance of AANEs and GLs with close-up shrub coverage. When tree and shrub layers each had approximately half coverage within a vegetation structure, the richness and abundance of AANEs were highest. Similarly, the richness and abundance of AANEs were positively related to neighboring blooming plant richness. However, the richness of AANEs and ALs, and the abundance of AANEs, AL, GL, and APs had a positive association either with the coverage or with the Shannon–Wiener diversity of close-up blooming plants. Half coverage of the tree and shrub layer combined with higher diversities (richness, coverage, and Shannon–Wiener diversity) of blooming plants resulted in low aphid density. The results provide a basis for effectively improving AANE diversity.

The green lacewing Chrysoperla nipponensis is an important natural enemy of many insect pests and exhibits reproductive diapause to overwinter. Our previous studies showed that adult C. nipponensis enters reproductive diapause under a short-day photoperiod. However, the molecular mechanism underlying diapause maintenance in C. nipponensis is still unknown. The total lipid and triglyceride content showed the reservation and degradation of energy during diapause in C. nipponensis. Thus, we performed combined transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of female reproductive diapause in C. nipponensis at three ecophysiological phases (initiation, maintenance and termination). A total of 64 388 unigenes and 5532 proteins were identified from the transcriptome and proteome. In-depth dissection of the gene-expression dynamics revealed that differentially expressed genes and proteins were predominately involved in the lipid and carbohydrate metabolic pathways, in particular fatty acid metabolism, metabolic pathways and the citrate cycle. Among of these genes, TIM, CLK, JHAMT2, PMK, HMGS, HMGR, FKBP39, Kr-h1, Phm, ECR, IR1, ILP3, ILP4, mTOR, ACC, LSD1 and LSD2 were differentially expressed in diapause and non-diapause female adults of C. nipponensis. The expression patterns of these genes were consistent with the occurrence of vitellogenesis and expression of either Vg or VgR. Our findings indicated that diapause adult C. nipponensis accumulate energy resources to overwinter. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses suggested candidate key genes involved in the maintenance of C. nipponensis during adult reproductive diapause. Taken together, these results provide in-depth knowledge to understand the maintenance mechanism of C. nipponensis during adult reproductive diapause. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The paper describes the monitoring of phytosanitary conditions in different regions of the Almaty region (Kazakhstan) and demonstrates the large population of cruciferous fleas (Phyllotreta cruciferae) on rapeseed plants, which reaches 7-9 spec./m2, exceeding the economic injury level (3-5 spec./m2). The disease is observed to spread on wheat and barley seeds. Proceeding from this, the study aims to develop effective protection measures against cruciferous fleas and to ecologize agricultural technologies using safe techniques and means of protection. The study uses methods of registration when monitoring the spread of pests and determining the effectiveness of the methods and tools applied. It is demonstrated that the treatment of wheat seeds with a protective and stimulating mixture using the preparation of bisolbisan 1 l/t + extrasol 1 l/t raised the intensity of crop growth to 94.2% compared to 70.9% in the control sample. High biological efficacy is noted from the use of actarophyte 1 l/ha mixed with extrasol against cruciferous fleas, the population of which after treatment is only 1 spec./m2 against 7.8 spec./m2 in the control case. The study also analyzes the results of releasing the Trichogramma ovipositor (Trichogramma) in the amount of 350 g/ha, Habrobracon (Bracon hebetor Say) at a rate of 500 spec./ha and green lacewings (Chrysopidae) at a rate of 1,500 eggs/ha to combat the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.). This first known treatment of rape crops using a drone against cruciferous fleas achieved a biological efficiency of 95.8-96.2%.

Brazil is the country which has produced the most coffee for over 150 years, and to achieve high productivity, pesticides are the most common control measure for pests. Due to the need to adopt less impactful control practices, natural enemies or insecticides of botanical origin have been studied as alternatives to synthetic insecticides. However, botanical pesticides can negatively affect some natural enemies, and the effect depends on the formulation and concentration. The objective of this study was to estimate the survival of green lacewing larvae, Chrysoperla externa (Hagen), exposed to different doses of neem-based products, whose active ingredient is azadirachtin (Azamax®: 0 (control treatment with distilled water), 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, and 108 mg a.i. L−1; Organic neem®: 0, 3.3, 6.6, 9.9, 13.2, 16.5, 19.8, 23.1, and 26.4 mg a.i. L−1; Natuneem®: 0, 3.8, 7.5, 10.5, 15.0, 18.8, 22.5, 26.3, 30.0, and 33.8 mg a.i. L−1), using a parametric approach. Predator larvae were exposed to neem-based insecticides and evaluated for 20 days. Survival curves estimated by the models—Log-logistic for Azamax®, Weibull for Organic neem®, and Log-normal for Natuneem®—demonstrated an inverse relationship between increasing doses and survival time. These concluded that the application dose should be less than 84 mg a.i. L−1 for Azamax®, 19.8 mg a.i. L−1 for Organic neem®, and 26.3 mg a.i. L−1 for Natuneem® to keep 50% of the green lacewings alive for 13 days, which is the average time for the larval cycle of C. externa.

The invasive whitefly species, rugose spiralling whitefly (RSW) and Bondar’s nesting whitefly (BNW) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) were reported on coconut in 2016 at Pollachi, Tamil Nadu, India and in 2019 in Kerala, India, respectively. Among the natural enemies of whiteflies, Apertochrysa astur (Banks) is the predominant predator observed in the coconut ecosystem. The population effect of RSW and BNW in different host plants, viz., coconut, banana and custard apple, on the growth and development of the A. astur were studied. Further, the effects of A. astur and yellow sticky traps (YSTs) were evaluated against the invasive whiteflies of coconut. The growth and development of the grubs of A. astur were better when fed with the RSW and BNW reared in coconut, followed by custard apple and banana. The weight of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd instar grubs were 0.25 mg, 0.62 mg and 2.46 mg, respectively. The pre-pupal weight was 7.41 mg, and that of the pupa and adult were 8.35 mg and 12.27 mg when fed with RSW. Similarly, when A. astur was fed with BNW reared on coconut, the weight of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd instar grub of A. astur was 0.22 mg, 0.59 mg and 2.24 mg, respectively. The pre-pupal weight was 7.06 mg, and that of the pupa and adult were 8.22 mg and 12.01 mg, respectively. Among the different treatment dosages of A. astur eggs and YSTs evaluated, 3 YST and 10 A. astur eggs palm-1 were highly effective as they reduced RSW and BNW population by 59.7 per cent and 56.7 per cent per cent, respectively. The grubs of A. astur were observed to be extremely efficient in reducing the population of A. rugioperculatus and P. bondari. The results supported that A. astur can be employed as an efficient biological control agent for managing invasive whitefly species in the coconut ecosystem.

Borniochrysa Brooks & Barnard, 1990 (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae: Chrysopinae: Chrysopinae) is a green lacewing genus, with five species previously recorded from the Australian, Oriental, and Afrotropical regions. Here we report the first record of Borniochrysa from China, and describe two new species, Borniochrysa kamayaria sp. nov. and Borniochrysa zhenxiana sp. nov. The standard DNA barcoding region of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) of these two new species was sequenced. An identification key to the Borniochrysa species is also provided.

Abstract To improve biological control and habitat management, how pest predators spread from natural habitats to crops must be understood. We studied whether intrinsic differences in stable‐isotopic ratios of C and N from an artificial C4 (sugar‐cane) or C3 (muti‐flower honey) diet could help mark and track predators that feed on them. Two aphid predators solely feeding on sugar resources as adults were used: the green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea s.l., and the parasitic wasp Aphidius colemani. δ13C and δ15N values from wild individuals helped distinguish them from marked ones and determine the habitat resources they used. Green lacewings fed on C4 showed significantly higher δ13C values than those on C3 and wild individuals. However, parasitoid values were unaffected, with no mark acquired. Logistic regression was fitted to assess the probability of green lacewings having either diet with a probability of 0.93. Marks were acquired after 5 days and were detectable 20 days after switching diets with a probability of 0.67. Similar δ15N values for both wild populations indicated both predators had similar prey, but different vegetal resources (different δ13C values). Sugar‐cane honey is a natural and reliable marker for tracking lacewing populations in the field, but not for parasitoids.

Rapid species radiations provide insight into the process of speciation and diversification. The radiation of Chrysoperla carnea-group lacewings seems to be driven, at least in part, by their species-specific pre-mating vibrational duets. We associated genetic markers from across the genome with courtship song period in the offspring of a laboratory cross between Chrysoperla plorabunda and Chrysoperla adamsi, two species primarily differentiated by their mating songs. Two genomic regions were strongly associated with the song period phenotype. Large regions of chromosomes one and two were associated with song phenotype, as fewer recombination events occurred on these chromosomes relative to the other autosomes. Candidate genes were identified by functional annotation of proteins from the C. carnea reference genome. The majority of genes that are associated with vibrational courtship signals in other insects were found within QTL for lacewing song phenotype. Together these findings suggest that decreased recombination may be acting to keep together loci important to reproductive isolation between these species. Using wild-caught individuals from both species, we identified signals of genomic divergence across the genome. We identified several candidate genes both in song-associated regions and near divergence outliers including nonA, fruitless, paralytic, period, and doublesex. Together these findings bring us one step closer to identifying the genomic basis of a mating song trait critical to the maintenance of species boundaries in green lacewings.

The relatively new invasive rugose spiralling whitefly (RSW) Aleurodicus rugioperculatus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) has become a serious threat to oil palm, particularly coconut plantation, in southern India. Here, we report biology and foraging potential of predatory neuropteran Green lace wings Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi (Esben-Petersen) and Mallada boninensis (Okamoto) (Chrysopidae) on against RSW. Results revealed that A. rugioperculatus served as a suitable host for the both chrysopid predators. C. z. sillemi completed its life cycle in 19.91±1.90 days with a larval (grub) period of 9.44±3.91 days and adult longevity was 24.10±1.87 days. The developmental period of M. boninensis was 22.3±2.93 days, with a larval period of 11.85±1.71 days, while the adult longevity was 19.25±1.52 day. In the laboratory experiment, all the larval stages of the predators were observed to feed on A. rugioperculatus. It was observed that the 3rd instar grub of C. zastrowi sillemi with the developmental period of 3.24±1.73 days consumed a maximum of 313.2 whiteflies (all the life stages) followed by second and 1st instar grub stages of the predator, which consumed mean number of 200.2 and 140.2 eggs and nymphs of A. rugioperculatus, respectively during their developmental period of 3.58±1.84 and 2.62±1.34 days, respectively. In the case of M. boninensis, a single grub could consume a total of 929.8 whiteflies (both eggs and nymphal stages) during its total larval period of 9.44±3.91 days.

The family Chrysopidae has several genera of which the genus Chrysoperla is more important of them. These lacewings are beneficial insects when they have high potential for predation on harmful aphids which can be used in their biological control programs. Due to high importance of these lacewings in Ardabil province in northwest zone of Iran, identification of their species was done. By examining the collected specimens with morphological features, wing venation, male reproductive organ, and claws shape (as the best way to identify the species) fi nally 4 species were identified including Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens), Chrysoperla kolthoffi Navas, Chrysoperla lucasina Lacroix, and Chrysoperla sillemi Esben-Petresen.