Greek Medicine Research Articles

Experience, Experiments, and the History of Empiricism

This paper discusses arguments from my recent book, Empiricisms: Experience and Experiment from Antiquity to the Anthropocene (2021). I discuss the origin of empiricism in ancient Greek medicine, and its merger with experimental research in the modern period. I also discuss the arguments of recent critics of empiricism, including W. V. Quine, Donald Davidson, and Richard Rorty. I introduce a distinction between theorematic and problematic empiricism and show how this difference divides the various empiricisms of history. My conclusions are: 1. Knowledge requires experience; results have to be tested, which takes experience. 2. The “experience” of empirical philosophy is the experience from which we learn. 3. Experimental values are many, but truth is not one of them. 4. Empiricism began as an antidote to rationalism, and that remains its vocation today.

Tulsi's Ayurvedic Medical Importance

Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) is an omnipresent, multipurpose plant and regarded as holy plant in Hindu religion finds place in front of every Hindu household. This herb is a member of Lamiaceae family, well known for its spiritual, religious and medicinal importance in India. Scientific investigations of traditional belief of medicinal properties of Tulsi have got impetus mostly in the later part of the 20th century. Characteristically, the plant imparts a pungent, bitter, hot, light and dry effect indicating the presence of curative value. It is extensively famous and has been used since centuries in Ayurveda and Greek medicines owing to its beneficially diverse properties. For the treatment of bronchitis, illness, and pyrexia, tulsi leaf extracts are described in Indian medical literature. It is thought to be a widespread plant in India.

Neurotrauma and Cerebrospinal Fluid in Homer's Poems

AbstractHomer's Iliad, from the 8th century BC, remains the oldest record of Greek medicine and a unique source of surgical history. The Odyssey, also authored by Homer, narrates several medically significant events. Among the 148 war traumas described in the Iliad, over a quarter occurred in the craniocervical region. Studies on the Odyssey report at least 11 craniocervical traumas, 9 of which prove fatal. Is there any indication of the presence of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the cases described by Homer, considering its last mention was 800 years prior in the Egyptian surgical papyrus of Edwin Smith? A passage in the Iliad suggests that the “tears” Homer mentions in the eyes of Eumelos, resulting from trauma, might be due to CSF oculorrhea secondary to a skull base fracture. In Odyssey Book IX, when the Cyclops strikes the heads of two sailors, and fluid and cranial contents emerge, it can be inferred that the poet was aware of fluid in the head (CSF), as there is no mention of blood. It is proposed that 800 years after the writing of the Edwin Smith papyrus, Homer probably provides the second human observation of CSF associated with traumatic situations involving direct head blows.

Ziabetus (Prediabetes): A Harbinger of Critical Stage in the Continuum of Glucose Metabolism Disorder: A Review

Background: Prediabetes is a metabolic condition characterized by blood glucose levels higher than normal but below the threshold for diabetes mellitus. It represents a critical stage in the progression towards type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and other complications. The two major pathophysiologic defects responsible for losing glucose tolerance are insulin resistance and β-cell glucose insensitivity, both appearing in subjects of Intermediate Hyperglycaemia. In classical literature, Unani physicians have described the initial symptoms and factors leading to the pathology, the risk factors are described in terms of ‘Su-e-mizaj’ as per the concept of Tibb. So, it is considered in the context of Ziabetus which is described as a disease that develops due to Sue-mizaj haar (abnormal hot temperament). The symptoms mentioned in Unani medicine are increased frequency of micturition (ants and flies are attracted to urine), increased thirst, nocturia, dryness of mouth and whole body, fatigue, loss of weight, malaise, and cramps in lower extremities. The modern drug-based approach for the management of Intermediate Hyperglycaemia is associated with inherent drawbacks, including toxicity, tolerability, cost, and efficacy. Objective: The purpose of this review is to provide an in-depth understanding of prediabetes concerning the classical literature of Greek medicine based on the analysis of certain parameters like etiopathophysiology, current diagnostic criteria, risk factors, and evidence-based management strategies. By synthesizing findings from epidemiological studies, and clinical trials, this paper aims to enhance understanding of prediabetes and facilitate effective preventive measures and interventions. Keywords: Prediabetes, Intermediate hyperglycaemia, Impaired Glucose Tolerance, Impaired Fasting Glucose, Insulin Resistance.

Exploration of dreams in Charaka Samhita – an Ayurveda text and their content analysis of prodromal dreams in various conditions

IntroductionResearch into dreams, have shown the association between increased frequency of distressing dreams, specific content themes (analysed using the Hall Van de Castle system) and greater incidence of progression of neurological conditions and dementia. The history of predicting illnesses by the content of dreams, in the western world is popularly traced backed to the ancient Greek medicine. This stimulates the curiosity if any such practices existed in the ancient medical practises of the eastern world. Ayurveda is one such traditional system of medicine, that is native to the Indian subcontinent. Charaka Samhita is one of the oldest texts on Ayurveda consisting of 8 sections and 120 chapters totally. This text was selected for the purpose of this review, with the line of enquiry such as what does Ayurveda say about dreams associated with illnesses? What are the contents of such dreams? Furthermore, the dream content analysis was done using the Hall Van de Castle system, which is probably the first time being done on an Ayurveda text content.Objectives1) To explore if, Charaka Samhita mentions, describes dreams in relation to illnesses, stages of illnesses and their prognosis. 2) To analyse content of the dreams seen in prodromal stage of illnesses.Methods1-The Charaka Samhita text was scanned chapter by chapter, to answer the questions- a) What are the types of dreams? b) Are any associated with illnesses? c)Are any dreams mentioned in the prodromal stage of illnesses? d)What do they imply? e)What are their contents? 2- The contents of prodromal dreams were analysed against the categories of Hall Van de Castle system.ResultsAs per Charaka Samhita, the types of dreams are, i) those based on what was seen ii) heard iii) reflected upon iv) desired v) imagined vi) those of prophetic type and vii) those caused by illnesses. Specific dreams in the prodromal stage, predict manifestation of specific illnesses (mild or fatal). In the diverse dream contents (18 themes mentioned) ranging from things animals to gods and demons, except the elements of the past, rest of the general categories occur, at least once. The categories characters, objects, activities and social interactions were more common than the rest.ConclusionsThus akin to the ancient Greek medicine, Ayurveda too had the practice of predicting illnesses based on the dream contents.Disclosure of InterestNone Declared

“Eski Tıp” metni ve ampirik tıbbın kökenleri

OBJECTIVE: In our study, the relationship between medicine and philosophy, which are still in their infancy, will be analysed and the empirical understanding of medicine proposed against the rational methods of philosophy in the context of the text titled “Ancient Medicine” in the “Hippocratic Corpus” will be discussed. MATERIAL and METHODS: Academic research. RESULTS: The ancient origins of empirical medicine are investigated. CONCLUSION: The text entitled ‘Ancient Medicine’ in the Corpus Hippocraticum is the first known attempt to make medicine independent of philosophy as well as of mysticism and magic. Keywords: ancient Greek medicine, corpus hippocraticum, empirical medicine

Melodies in the hospital courtyard: A comparative history of Ottoman music therapy in the early modern period (c. 1400–1800)

The use of music in psychotherapeutic treatment is typically thought of as a recent practice whose roots are incorrectly attributed to ancient Greek and European medicine. The present article provides an overview of Ottoman music therapy (OMT) for the mentally ill, which was examined in relation to pre-modern European medical understanding and also modern music therapy. We argue that the systematic and pragmatic use of music for the medical treatment of the mentally ill in Ottoman hospitals provided a state-of-the-art model whose relevance is still palpable today. Moreover, OMT offers an example of the exceptional contributions advanced by the Islamic civilization in regards to music therapy. In the Muslim world, music was prescribed and used for medicinal, psychiatric purposes centuries before it gained traction in the Western medical field. Appreciation of the Ottoman model — advanced even by modern standards — is essential not only in accurately understanding the historical origins of music therapy but also to enhance its current-day practice. We also discuss the likelihood of knowledge transmission between Ottoman and European medical traditions and the possibility that OMT might have influenced the use of music therapy for psychiatric disorders in European medical institutions centuries later.

The Development of Modern Chinese Medicine in a Comparative Perspective of the History of Chinese and Western Medicine

Chinese and Western medicine have different origins and have developed in different ways and with different contents. This paper focuses on a comparative study of the history of Chinese and Western medicine, tracing the development of ancient Greek medicine, the rescue and treatment of the Black Death in medieval Europe, and the medical treatment and public health represented by the prevention and treatment of smallpox in the Qing Dynasty. Chinese and Western medicine offered different paths to the rescue and treatment of disease from different perspectives. At the same time, the paper focus on the formation and development of the systematization of Chinese and Western medicine in modern times and the transformation of modern Chinese medicine under the influence of Western learning in the east. By discussing the changes in the modern Chinese medical education system - from ecclesiastical medicine to an integrated institutional training model, the further training of medical talents and finally the government's promulgation of the University Decree to provide modern By discussing the changes in the modern Chinese medical education system - from ecclesiastical medicine to an integrated institutional training model for medical personnel and finally the government’s promulgation of the University Decree to provide institutional guarantees for modern medical education, the significance of the convergence of Western and Chinese medicine for the development of modern Chinese medicine will be discussed in this paper.

Brief History of Sowa-Rigpa in Ladakh

Sowa-Rigpa” commonly known as Tibetan system of medicine is one of the oldest, Living and well documented medical tradition of the world. It has been originated from Tibet and popularly practice in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia and Russia. The majority of theory and practice of Sowa-Rigpa is similar to “Ayurveda”. The first Ayurvedic influence came to Tibet during 3rd century AD but it became popular only after 7th centuries with the approach of Buddhism to Tibet. There after this trend of exportation of Indian medical literature, along with Buddhism and other Indian art and sciences were continued till early 19th century. India being the birth place of Buddha and Buddhism has always been favorite place for learning Buddhist art and culture for Tibetan students; lots of Indian scholars were also invited to Tibet for prorogation of Buddhism and other Indian art and sciences. This long association with India had resulted in translation and preservation of thousands of Indian literature on various subjects like religion, sciences, arts, culture and language etc. in Tibetan language. Out of these around twenty-five text related to medicine are also preserved in both canonical and non-canonical forms of Tibetan literatures. Many of these knowledge were further enriched in Tibet with the knowledge and skills of neighboring countries and their own ethnic knowledge. “Sowa-Rigpa” (Science of healing) is one of the classic examples of it. rGyud-bZhi (four tantra) the fundamental text book of this medicine was composed by Yuthog Yonten Gonpo who is believed to be the father of Sowa Rigpa. rGyud-bZhi which is based on indigenous medicine of Tibet enriched with Ayurveda, Chinese and Greek Medicine. The impact of Sowa-Rigpa along with Buddhism and other Tibetan art and sciences were spread in neighboring Himalayan regions. In India, this system is widely practice in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Darjeeling (West Bengal), Dharamsala, Lahaul and Spiti(Himachal Pradesh) and Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir.

Chios Mastic Gum: Chemical Profile and Pharmacological Properties in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: From the Past to the Future.

Chios mastic gum, the product of the tree Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, has been used for more than 2500 years in traditional Greek medicine for treating several diseases, thanks to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of its components. Despite the long-time use of mastic in gastroenterology and in particular in chronic-inflammation-associated diseases, to date, the literature lacks reviews regarding this topic. The aim of the present work is to summarize available data on the effects of P. lentiscus on inflammatory bowel disease. A comprehensive review of this topic could drive researchers to conduct future studies aimed at deeply investigating P. lentiscus effects and hypothesizing a mechanism of action. The present review, indeed, schematizes the possible bioactive components of mastic gum. Particular care is given to P. lentiscus var. Chia medicaments' and supplements' chemical compositions and their pharmacological action in inflammatory bowel disease.

Unani Tibb practitioners’ perceptions and attitudes towards spirituality and spiritual care in Unani Tibb practice in South Africa

BackgroundUnani Tibb is an Arabic term which means Greek medicine. It is an ancient holistic medical system based on the healing theories of Hippocrates, Galen and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Despite this, spirituality and spiritual care practices are deficient in the clinical setting.MethodsThis cross-sectional descriptive study was used to describe Unani Tibb practitioners’ perceptions and attitudes regarding spirituality and spiritual care in South Africa. A demographic form, Spiritual Care-Giving Scale, Spiritual and Spiritual Care Rating Scale and Spirituality in Unani Tibb Scale were used to collect data.ResultsA response rate of 64.7% (n = 44 out of 68) was achieved. Positive perceptions and attitudes regarding spirituality and spiritual care were recorded for Unani Tibb practitioners. The spiritual needs of their patients were considered vital towards enhancing the Unani Tibb treatment approach. Spirituality and spiritual care were regarded as fundamental to Unani Tibb therapy. However, most practitioners agreed that adequate training in spirituality and spiritual care was lacking and future training initiatives were imperative for Unani Tibb clinical practice in South Africa.ConclusionThe findings of this study recommends further research in this field by means of qualitative and mixed methods approaches to provide a deeper understanding to this phenomenon. Clear guidelines on spirituality and spiritual care for Unani Tibb clinical practice are essential to ensure the integrity of the holistic approach required by the profession.

A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF BILIOUS DISEASES: AN OVERVIEW

Human being has always been suffering from diseases. Before the beginning of Ṭibb (medicine) (300Bc), superstitions were considered as the cause of disease. Therefore, Gods and Goddesses were worshipped to cure disease and regain health. Since the existence of medicine, the material is considered a cause of disease. Accordingly, treatment shifted towards the material. In 500 BC Buqrat (Hippocrates) started the discussion of health. He established the views of structure, composition, properties and functions, health and disease in respect of the human body. So, the goal of Greek medicine is to protect health to the possible extent and cure disease. Hippocrates proposed the concept of AkhlāṭArbaa (four humours/four fluid) these are Khilṭ-i- Dam (sanguineous humour), Khilṭ-i-Balgham (phlegmatic humour), Khilṭ-i-Ṣafrā (choleric humour) and Khilṭ-i-Sawdāʼ (melancholic humour). He also proposed that the harmonious state of four humours is responsible for health. And, disharmony results in disease. Every humour is attributed to specific qualities, characteristics and some specific and general functions. But the main function of these Akhlāṭ (humours) is to provide nutrition and replenishment of every organ of the body according to their temperament. Choleric humour is synonymously called yellow bile or bilious humour. Yellow bile is one of the four humours, responsible for health and disease. In abnormal state yellow bile can produce a number of diseases called bilious diseases. In U.S.M. (Unani System of Medicine) bilious diseases are discussed under the heading of Sū-i-MizājMāddῑ (morbid temperament associated with substance). In this paper, a brief explanation of yellow bile along with it relates is given. Pathophysiology of bilious diseases is given in detail.

From Exclusive Dream Oracles to Ubiquitous Incubation Dreams: A Change in the Perception of a Divine Healer?

Abstract This paper argues that the cult of Asklepios developed and spread fast due to a shift in mentality in Classical Greece. This change concerned both who might communicate directly with the gods in dreams, as well as the development of a new way of envisaging healing. It is argued that the notion that anybody could receive a godsent dream, as seen in numerous incubation sanctuaries, reflects a change in mentality in Classical times. It is further argued that religious healing in the cult of Asklepios was influenced by the development of Greek medicine in Archaic times, and the ease and low expense of consulting a Hippokratic doctor in Classical times.

Review: Kabbalah and Sex Magic: A Mythical-Ritual Genealogy, by Marla Segol

Review: <i>Kabbalah and Sex Magic: A Mythical-Ritual Genealogy</i>, by Marla Segol

A Historical Study of the Role of Exercise and Physical Activity in Medicine from Perspective of Galenian Medicine

Historical reports indicate that concepts such as health, well-being, personal and social development are closely related to physical activity, and the civilized nations of the world have always considered the importance of physical activity in the field of health and wellness. Among the ancient nations, the Greeks were most interested in exercise and physical activity, as it was an important part of ancient Greek medicine, and ancient Greek physicians, especially Hippocrates and Galen, focused on physical activity and proper diet as important components of a healthy lifestyle. Therefore, much of the basic information about the relationship between exercise and health was presented in the findings and medical texts of ancient Greece, which was comprehensively and practically proposed by Galen in the form of the theory of nature and the unnatural. The present study uses a descriptive-analytical method based on library information to answer the question of when humans with scientific and principled method found that exercise and physical activity have played a role in body health and the result of ancient Greek medicine, especially theory. Galen on the relationship between exercise and health in the form of abnormalities in ancient Greece, the Middle Ages, then the Renaissance to the present day, can play an important and effective role of exercise and physical activity in maintaining body health and disease prevention in different eras of human life.

Methods and management in ancient Egyptian and Greek medicine

Methods and management in ancient Egyptian and Greek medicine

A Review: Phytochemical Investigation and Medicinal Applications of Herb’s

Now a day’s major population over the world is facing the issue of allopathic drug and their adverse effect in treatment of various diseases. Ayurveda is one of the traditional medicinal systems of India. The philosophy behind Ayurveda is preventing unnecessary suffering and living a long healthy life. Herbal medicines have existed world-wide with long recorded history and they were used in ancient Chinese, Greek, and Indian medicine for various therapies purposes.Herbals are one of the best alternativesin treatment of acute and chronic diseases.&#x0D; In this review different herb has been studied due to its medicinal, pharmacognostic and therapeutic application. This article enlists some commercial and non-commercial Polyherbal all around the world. In which plants, fruits, leaves, seeds and powder of Momordica dioica, Lantana camara L., Curcuma longa,Carthamustinctorius and Acacia catechu has been studied. This article provides a general idea about different herbs, their phytochemical contents, method of extraction and applications in treatment of various diseases.&#x0D; &#x0D;

Physico-Chemical Analysis of a Herbal Classical Formulation-Shleshmatakadhya Agada Ghanvati

One of India's ancient systems of medicine is Ayurveda. The fundamental principal of Ayurvedic medicine is to keep your body, mind, and environment in balance and harmony in order to prevent and treat sickness rather than to treat symptoms of disease. In order to treat the disease's underlying cause and restore balance, Ayurveda uses natural ingredients. For a very long period, herbal medicines were used for a variety of therapeutic goals in ancient Chinese, Greek, Egyptian, and Indian medicine. According to the World Health Organization, 80% of the world's population still primarily relies on traditional medicines for their medical care. With around 45,000 plant species, the Indian subcontinent is renowned for being one of the key hubs for biodiversity. Sharangdhara Samhita, emphasised the idea of polyherbalism as a means of enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Sometimes the active phytochemical components of a single plant are not enough to bring about the intended therapeutic results so they are mixed in a certain ratio to enhance the therapeutic effects and combat toxicity. Hence new findings in Ayurveda are gradually focusing on the significance of poly herbalism and its clinical relevance. In this study, efforts have been made to lay down analytical standards for Shleshmatakadhya Agada Ghanavati, which were not found reported till date. Shleshmatakadhya Agada Ghanavati was manufactured at the Hans Herbal Pvt. Ltd. Pharmacy, Haridwar were within acceptable range. Determination of heavy metals was also done additionally and the result showed that all the metals were within the API limits in the formulation. In TLC, 3 spots were found.

The kinesthetic diagnosis in a homeric item of pathological heartbeat: An overview in the history of ancient greek medicine

The Iliad, by the Greek poet Homer, is a precious mine of examples of war traumatology. In the specific case of spear wounds in the chest, the death of the Trojan warrior Alcathous is particularly interesting from the point of view of the history of medicine and the evolution of cardiology and knowledge of the heart at the time of ancient Greece.In particular this paper aims to evidence and reconstruct the main anatomical and physiological knowledge of the heart at that time. Indeed, a historical-linguistic analysis of the Greek text prompts some reflections and thoughts on the heartbeat in pathological conditions and on the function of the heart as a hematopoietic organ.Furthermore, Homer's account is a critical text that highlights the relevance of the use of the senses in the ancient description of nosological pictures and it allows us an interesting and suggestive approach to reconstruction from the historical and historiographical point of view.

Asclepiades of Bithynia: Greek physician and medical reformer.

Asclepiades of Bithynia (124-40 BC) was a Greek physician who practised and taught Greek medicine in Rome. Among his many contributions, Asclepiades challenged the long-standing Hippocratic doctrine of the four humours. Influenced by Epicurean philosophy, he sought to construct a new theory of human disease, derived in part from atomic theories of chance and evolution earlier described by Democritus and Epicurus. In clinical practice, Asclepiades's approach to physical and mental illnesses was reasoned, humane, and, in many ways, ahead of its time. As a result of his many contributions and his overall approach to care, Asclepiades is now considered a pioneer of modern physical therapy, the progenitor of a more humane approach to mental illness, and, as highlighted by Yapijakis, the father of modern molecular medicine.