Greek Medicine Research Articles

Past, Present, and Future of Psychosomatic Movements in an Ever-Changing World: Presidential Address.

The American Psychosomatic Society was founded in 1942 and is celebrating its 75th anniversary in 2017. In recognizing the society's anniversary, this article provides a historical perspective on its history, the field of psychosomatic medicine in general, and anticipated future directions. Essay and narrative review of the literature on the historic development of psychosomatic concepts and their impact on medicine over time. Mind-body associations have been described in the medical literature for more than 3500 years. Early concepts of mind-body dualism and attempts to overcome them are found in classical Greek medicine. Psychosomatic thinking can be observed ever since, but only in the 20th century, a "psychosomatic movement" emerged in Europe and North America, aiming at humanizing medicine by introducing a holistic understanding of man into what was considered a widely reductionistic practice of medicine. This movement led to the inauguration of the American Psychosomatic Society during World War II and of national and international societies of psychosomatic medicine and its subspecializations thereafter. Psychosomatic medicine has its roots in the beginnings of medicine. During the past 75 years, it has made substantial contributions to the science and practice of medicine. The field has also changed in response to developments in medicine, technology, and society and is facing new challenges and opportunities that may require further adaptation of its concepts and practice.

External Reference Pricing In Greece. A Comparative Analysis For 2015-2017

To compare the results of performing External Reference Pricing (IRP) in Greece from 2015 to2017, to model the changes on ex-factory prices in domestic market medicines and to forecast future impacts in Greece and other countries that take Greek Market Medicines as a reference. Greek medicines pricing bulletins and research in EU28 medicine bulletins published by official sources. Comparison of price sources and price differences. We have compared all medicine prices from three Greek medicine bulletins for the period 2015-2017. External Reference Pricing is performed to calculate the average of the three lowest prices in EU for branded medicines that are not under price protection. Tiers of price protection affected the basket mix for External Reference Pricing. Nine Euro zone countries share 55-60% of the total sum of eligible medicines for reference pricing. Five non Euro zone countries contribute the remaining 40-45% External Reference Pricing has been the main tool for pricing and repricing of branded medicines in Greek Reimbursed Market. Tiers of price protections and variation of calculation rules affect significantly the basket mix and the final medicine prices. Differences vary from 5% to 15% of x-factory price. Pharmaceutical companies should take under consideration these factors to forecast future price reductions in Greece primarily and then, the rest of the world.

Generic Reimbursed Market Shares In Greece From 2012-2016. A Study Based On Age Group Preferences

A generic drug shares the same active and inactive ingredients as the branded though it is marketed under a different trade name, trademark, packaging than the branded. Increased penetration of prescribed generics has been primary goal during the memorandum years (since 2010) in Greece. We assessed trends in the prescriptions of authorized generics in the public reimburesed market from EOPYY in Greece during the years 2012-2016. Medicines Data were derived from the EOF (Greek Medicines Organization) databases, the Greek Positive list of prescribed medicines and published reimbursement data by EOPYY (Greek Public Reimbursement Organization) .Time trends in generic market were described and compared with chi-square tests in each semester from 2012 to 2016. In 2012 generics market share was 22% both in values and volume of the public reimbursed market. In 2016 Gx value and volume shares were approximately 25%. Generic value share increased linearly from 72% in S2 2012 to 80% in S2 2015 in patients age group >60 years old. In S1&S2 2016 Generic value share decreased significantly to 72% in patient group >60 years old but increased in almost all other age groups. In the same period older patients switched from generics to Off patent medicines in a rate 10% per semester and to On patent medicines in a rate 20% per semester. Chronic deseases patients count for over 70% volume in public reimbursed market shares. Generic medicines are preferred by older patients. The use of generics in reimbursed market is increased overtime. The effect of increased generic penetration on the reimbursed market and the incentives for generic preference should be assessed.

Medicine versus philosophy

The ancient Greek medicine was based on the principle that philosophy influences all natural sciences as a whole. The doctor had, first of all, a humanistic formation followed by study of applied sciences specific to medicine. If humanism is purely theoretical, medicine is an applied science and the two-philosophy and medical knowledge, despite the apparent antinomy are able to create a union to the benefit of humanity. Medicine is the art of treating patients, identifying diseases and malady prevention. In its endeavor, medicine is based on the findings of numerous other fields such as physics, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, etc. Philosophy, on the other hand, can be defined as an attempt to understand human life as a whole. It is inevitable that the two ways of dealing with human beings to have influenced each other and the history of mankind. Both forms of knowledge have a major impact and influence on the world. Philosophy, understood in its older meaning, urged towards the prophylaxis and treatment of diseases of the soul whereas medicine, relying on philosophical teachings is aimed at healing the body and study its psychosomatic features.

ギリシアの医学思想における発生の問題 : 『生殖について』第6章〜第8章の議論の分析を中心に

ギリシアの医学思想における発生の問題 : 『生殖について』第6章〜第8章の議論の分析を中心に

Hypophysis. From outgrowth, to ocular disorder to pituitary gland.

The term Hypophysis has a great history deriving from ancient Greek medicine, where had no relation to pituitary gland but meant an undergrowth linked especially to trichiasis and ectropion. Samuel Thomas von Sommerring (1755–1830) in 1778 reinvented this term introducing in medical terminology its modern context.

Neurological Concepts in Ancient Greek Medicine

Neurological Concepts in Ancient Greek Medicine

A Brief Historical Survey of Transplantations (From The Origins to the First Decades of the 20th Century)

“Those diseases that medicines do not cure are cured by the knife. Those that the knife does not cure are cured by fire. Those that fire does not cure must be considered incurable”. One may read these words in Aphorisms, VII, 821 of the so-called “Corpus Hippocraticum”. Be or be not Hippocrates (c.469-c.399 B.C.) himself the author2 there is no difference: the few lines (3 in the Greek text!) witness that in the most ancient Greek medicine – and mainly in the field of medical deontology3 – surgery performed either with the knife, or with the cautery was nothing else than a therapeutic means, which the physician had recourse to whenever diet and medicinesfailed. Even if one may find some treatises on surgery, which show an exceptional skilfulness4 , this does not absolutely mean that the “iatros” – i.e., the real “physician” – himself performed surgeries.

Neurological Concepts in Ancient Greek Medicine by Thomas M. Walshe

Neurological Concepts in Ancient Greek Medicine by Thomas M. Walshe

Theodoros Aretaios (1829-1893) the Most Eminent Surgeon of His Era and the First Pediatric Tracheotomy Due to Laryngeal Diphtheria in Modern Greece

During 1829 in the city of Nauplion, Theodoros Konstantinidis was born. He had studied medicine in Athens, Wien, Paris and Berlin, where he had supported his doctoral thesis. In 1856 he had returned in Greece to work in Astyclinici and Elpis Hospitals. He had soon become professor of Artistic Anatomy and Epidesmologia, professor of Surgery, elected as Dean and eventually Rector of the University. Dedicated to his love for the ancient Greek medicine, font of Aretaeus of Cappadocia, he had changed his name to Theodoros Aretaios. He was the writer of a substantial number of medical treatises, member of the Athenian Medical Society, editor in medical journals of the era, and a pioneering surgeon with a worldwide fame, who firstly performed a pediatric tracheotomy due to laryngeal diphtheria in modern Greece. He had been operating all his life common people from all over Greece. He left a bequest for the first Surgical and Obstetrical Clinic of the University to be built, bearing his name, Aretaieion Hospital. In March 1893, he died and all Greece felt in heavy mourning for its benefactor.

نظريّة علم الأم ا رض وأساليب التشخيص عند الأطباء المسلمين

The recent references on Islamic medicine and orientalist books, in particular, indicate that the Muslim doctors were a transition of Greek medical sciences and did not add anything to it especially in the philosophy of pathology and diagnostic methods. This study sheds light on the efforts of Muslim doctors and what they added to respond to those words that decrease Of the role of Islamic civilization and its scientists in the development of science and its leading role in the advancement of human civilization.While Muslim doctors took a lot of Greek medicine (especially his theory and philosophy), this was not possible if it were not compatible with the Islamic vision. The general theory of Greek medicine has been built on four pillars (fire, air, earth, water), which are elements of the human body. These elements have four characteristics (heat, cold, Drought, humidity), and that the health of the body is the balance of these blends, and non-weight leads to disease. This theory was violated by Muslim doctors in this regard.This difference is due to their Islamic heritage, which confirms that man was created from dust and water in which he made life, so they agreed in something that is: that of the objects of soil and water. Each temperament has its own temperature, along with natural heat, which exists in everything; but neither mixing nor mixing is the cause of life; it is only the tool that makes life possible. Muslim doctors believed in the spirit that landed on this mix of mixtures To transmit life.As Muslim doctors tried to recognize the benefits of organs to diagnose diseases, they divided the functions of organs (physiological) into three types: natural, animal and spiritual functions, and Muslim doctors have a special method in the study of diseases to diagnose them, including:First: Good listening to the story of the disease and the analysis of the complaint of the patient (complaint history and presenting) Arab doctors in the diagnosis of various diseases adopted the good hearing of the complaint of patients, investigate their conditions and visit their homes when necessary, and the story of their disease and analysis of symptoms and signs, and the absence of modern diagnostic methods such as X-ray and endoscopy The laboratories mention, for example: esophageal ulcers, stomach and intestines.Second: examinations (meditation and observation) clinical examination.Third: The diagnosis of observation and observation (Inspection): The basis of this axis to note the symptoms and changes in the patient to look at and control when doing natural vital actions, including: a. Note color, b. Note breathing, c. Note newborn newborn, d. Note rash in the skin.
 IV: the use of hand in the examination: palpation (pulse) - percussion (percussion): examination of women: tests of sense and movement.Fifth: Examination of secretions: a. Monitoring vomiting, b. Control feces and worms, c. Monitoring menstruation and blood in women, d. Urine controlSixth: Environment and its impact on health.

Pharmacological Evaluation of Ocimum sanctum

Tulsi is a Sanskrit word that means “matchless one”. Ocimum sanctum is a plant of family Lamiaceae, is commonly known as Holy Basil. Characteristically, the plant imparts a pungent, bitter, hot, light and dry effect. Holy Basil is extensively famous and has been used since centuries in Ayurvedic and Greek medicines owing to its beneficially diverse properties. O. sanctum (Tulsi in Hindi) has a significant place in Hindu culture, being used in an array of traditional medicaments and as a condiment. Online published articles, journals, internet sites, Pubmed, Scopus and Google Scholar were explored for data collection. Since Ayurveda times, various parts such as leaves, roots, seeds and whole plant has been recommended for treatment of a spectrum of diseases including bronchitis, dysentery, malaria, diarrhea, eye ailments, dermatological issues, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. Scientifically, it has been proven that O. sanctum possesses anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, antifungal, antimicrobial, cardio protective, analgesic, antispasmodic and adaptogenic, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antiallergic, antipyretic, antiviral, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, CNS depressant and anti-arthritis activities. Its biologically active constituent is known as Eugenol (1-hydroxy-2-methoxy-4-allylbenzene) which is responsible for the mediation of therapeutic characteristics. This review is an attempt to summarize the botanical, pharmacological, phytochemical, ethno medicinal, and toxicological information. This is an effort to help researchers and clinicians to be aware of the magical properties and the effectiveness of Tulsi.

Electric current to cure arthritis and cephalaea in ancient Greek medicine

Electric current to cure arthritis and cephalaea in ancient Greek medicine

Pharmacology and psychiatry at the origins of Greek medicine: The myth of Melampus and the madness of the Proetides

ABSTRACTMelampus is a seer-healer of Greek myth attributed with having healed the young princesses of Argos of madness. Analysis of this legend and its sources sheds light on the early stages of the “medicalizing” shift in the history of ancient Greek medicine. Retrospective psychological diagnosis suggests that the descriptions of the youths’ madness rose from actual observation of behavioral and mental disorders. Melampus is credited with having healed them by administering hellebore. Pharmacological analysis of botanical specimens proves that Helleborus niger features actual neurological properties effective in the treatment of mental disorders. The discussion aims at examining the rational aspects of the treatment of mental conditions in Greco-Roman antiquity.

Dreams in ancient Greek Medicine

Dreams in ancient Greek Medicine

10.22365/jpsych.2016.273.215

Dreams preoccupied the Greek and Roman world in antiquity, therefore they had a prominent role in social, philosophical, religious, historical and political life of those times. They were considered as omens and prophetic signs of future events in private and public life, and that was particularly accentuated when elements of actions which took place in the plot of dreams were associated directly or indirectly with real events. This is why it was important to use them in divination, and helped the growth of superstition and folklore believes. Medicine as a science and an anthropocentric art, could not ignore the importance of dreams, having in mind their popularity in antiquity. In ancient Greek medicine dreams can be divided into two basic categories. In the first one -which is related to religious medicine-dreams experienced by religionists are classified, when resorted to great religious sanctuaries such as those of Asclepius (Asclepieia) and Amphiaraos (Amfiaraeia). These dreams were the essential element for healing in this form of religious medicine, because after pilgrims underwent purifications they went to sleep in a special dwelling of the sanctuaries called "enkoimeterion" (Greek: the place to sleep) so that the healing god would come to their dreams either to cure them or to suggest treatment. In ancient Greek literature there are many reports of these experiences, but if there may be phenomena of self-suggestion, or they could be characterized as propaganda messages from the priesthood of each sanctuary for advertising purposes. The other category concerns the references about dreams found in ancient Greek medical literature, where one can find the attempts of ancient Greek physicians to interpret these dreams in a rational way as sings either of a corporal disease or of psychological distress. This second category will be the object of our study. Despite the different ways followed by each ancient Greek physician in order to explain dreams, their common intention was to give a rational answer for the creation and content of dreams setting aside any supernatural beliefs. In addition they tried to explain in a scientific way the correlation that could have emerged between the story that took place in dreams and the events that happened in everyday life. Nevertheless, ancient Greek physicians focused especially on nightmares, which were associated with physical problems. For those physicians these nightmares included information about the corporal disease of the patient, which had a reflection in the dream, and they could help them to diagnose the problem in order to restore balance of the body.

“Pistacia lentiscus L.” reduces the infarct size in normal fed anesthetized rabbits and possess antiatheromatic and hypolipidemic activity in cholesterol fed rabbits

Hypothesis/PurposeThe aim of the present study was to evaluate in vivo the potential anti-ischemic and antiatheromatic activity of Chios Mastic gum, the resin of the trunk and branches of “Pistacia lentiscus var. chia”, used since antiquity in traditional Greek medicine. The main compounds of mastic are triterpenes, possessing phytosterol-like structures. This led to the hypothesis that mastic and particularly its neutral fraction, enriched in phytosterol-like compounds, possess antiatheromatic activities. MethodsTotal Mastic Extract without Polymer (TMEWP) and the neutral mastic fraction (NMF) were administered orally for 6 weeks to normal fed and to cholesterol fed rabbits in the form of sunflower oil solution. All the animals were randomly divided into 6 groups, anesthetized and subjected to 30min ischemia of the heart, followed by 3h reperfusion: At the end of the experiment the area at risk and the infarct zone were determined with the aid of fluorescent particles and triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining, and small segments of the ascending and descending aorta and the heart were taken for histologic examination. Blood samples were collected at different time points of ischemia and reperfusion, for malondialdehyde (MDA) evaluation as an index of lipid peroxidation, for total and LDL cholesterol determination and for evaluation of oxidized LDL. ResultsIn the normal fed animals the NMF and the TMEWP reduced significantly the infarct size, while in the hypercholesterolemic rabbits both treatments were ineffective. Atherosclerosis was detected in all the animals fed cholesterol enriched diet in the form of subintimal accumulation of lipids and foamy macrophages. There was no detection of atherosclerosis in Groups treated with TMEWP and NMF, which both reduced the total cholesterol levels by 47 and 88% respectively, whilst had not effect on LDL oxidation. TMEWP and NMF reduced the MDA concentration in normal fed rabbits, but had no effect on MDA levels in cholesterol fed animals. TMEWP and NMPF reduce the infarct size in normal animals and possess significant antiatheromatic and hypolipidemic activities in rabbits fed cholesterol enriched diet.

Greek medicine: a new look

The earliest known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in the Hellenistic period BCE. Alcmaeon of Croton, author of the first anatomical text, worked at this school in the 6th and 7th centuries BCE. Before Hippocrates, he suggested that man might be constituted of Talete’s four individual elements or humours. A person’s health derived from the equilibrium of these elements, which he called isonomy, whereas disease derived from monarchy when one element superseded the others. The Greeks incorporated older Egyptian ideas and remedies into their medicine. Greeks believed that evil spirits or angry gods caused diseases, and that the gods such as Asclepius, son of Apollo, could heal and cure diseases. Sacrifice and prayer, often at Asclepius’ shrine, were common methods of seeking remedy. In Greek mythology, the centaur, Chiron, wounded by Hercules, was thought to have invented medicine in order to heal himself. He taught Asclepius the art of healing, the source of divine medical knowledge. But by ∼500 BCE, Greek doctors had become more interested in using scientific observation and logic to discover what caused diseases. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, most works of the Greek physicians were lost to Western Europe. Fortunately, in the 14th and 15th centuries, some were rediscovered in Arab repositories of learning, many in Spain and Italy. Most texts on Medical History before the 18th century rely heavily on translations often from Greek, Latin or Arabic. With authenticity diminished by the passage of time, many are based on quotations. Thomas M. Walshe’s Neurological Concepts in Ancient Greek Medicine is different. He interrupted his medical career in 1992 to study Ancient Greek, and subsequently wrote a series of original essays, which he has now revised in this book. Walshe relates much academic detail of reference sources and their …

History of scrofula: from humoral dyscrasia to consumption

The term “scrofula” was used for a long time to designate a chronic swelling of cervical lymph nodes. This paper outlines the prevalent ideas on the nature, pathogenesis and the treatment of this disorder, from classical Greek medicine up to the 18th century. A Hippocratic treatise regarded scrofula as produced by an accumulation of phlegm, with a consequent imbalance or dyscrasia of the body humors. It was believed that it could heal spontaneously; but it could also soften, open through the skin and have an obstinate course. The treatment consisted mainly on local applications, incision to evacuate the soft content, or extirpation of the abnormal mass. In France and England, crowds of scrofulous patients were touched by the kings who were supposed to have a hereditary miraculous power to cure the disease. A Medieval text mentioned that scrofula could also affect other parts of the body. In the 17th century, scrofula was reputed as a frequent condition and was attributed to blood acrimony which coagulated in spongy organs. It was associated to phthisis or consumption due to the lethal outcome in some patients and to a cheese-like appearance of the pulmonary and the scrofulous lesions.

Back to the roots - dermatology in ancient Egyptian medicine.

Although ancient Greek and Roman medicine is generally considered the origin of European medicine, there is evidence in ancient Egyptian texts suggesting a precursor role of ancient Egyptian medicine in this regard. What did Greek and Roman physicians learn from their Egyptian counterparts? Of the medical papyri discovered to date, the largest and most significant - the Ebers papyrus and the Smith papyrus - originate from the beginning of the New Kingdom, however, they were - at least in part - already written during the Old Kingdom. Considering the times, the spectrum of diseases treated as well as the range of conservative and surgical treatment methods was truly astounding. Taking a medical history, performing a thorough manual examination, and assessing clinical findings constituted key components in establishing a diagnosis. Apart from hygienic aspects, skin and hair disorders, the treatment of acute and chronic wounds and injuries as well as cosmetic procedures took on an important role. Even back then, physicians sought to assess inflammatory processes with respect to their cardinal features, implement graded wound therapy, and treat diseases with allopathic drugs. The 'channel theory' prevalent at that time, in which the unimpeded flow of bodily fluids was considered a fundamental prerequisite for health, may likely be regarded as precursor of ancient Greek humoral pathology. The latter became the basis for the subsequently established theory of the four humors, and was thus essential for the entire field of medieval medicine.