Greek Icon Research Articles

MA-XRF investigation of a 17th century icon by the renowned painter Theodoros Poulakis

Eastern Orthodox religious panel paintings (“icons”) are continuously manufactured since the dawn of Christianity and are still being used in the framework of pertinent rituals and worship. In the current work, an important Greek icon is investigated through non-invasive macroscopic X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) analysis to reveal the employed painting materials and techniques. The artifact in consideration was painted by the renowned icon painter Theodoros Poulakis who was active during the 17th century (ca. 1622–1692). Poulakis’ work is characterized by the extremely skillful painting and played a major role in the stylistic developments of Greek religious painting; additionally, more than one hundred icons that either bear Poulakis’ signature or are attributed to his hand on stylistic basis are spotted today. Through the MA-XRF investigation of the icon in consideration authors were able to identify the materials employed in its manufacturing and revealed interesting technical details, including some peculiar –and possibly idiomorphic– characteristics. In particular, the identified pigments include vermilion, lead white, minium, at least two distinct ochre pigments, a copper-based blue (presumably azurite) and two distinct (in terms of composition) copper-based green pigments, along with a deep-red organic lake. Poulakis used extensively high-purity gold leaves for gilding the background and the haloes of the figures, while MA-XRF allowed for the identification of inferior (in terms of purity) gold leaves that were used for rendering gilded highlights on various details. The analytical data allowed for an in-depth investigation of the materials and techniques employed by Poulakis in this particular painting and led to the spotting of some rather idiomorphic technical characteristics, such as the presence of a copper green pigment that contains Zn–As–Ba impurities and the combination of multiple colors for highlighting red vestments. The results are evaluated under the light of other relevant studies and aim primarily at setting a sound foundation for a forthcoming, extensive and thorough investigation of the materials and techniques employed in other Theodoros Poulakis paintings.

The Balpis Expansion of the Technical Part of the Hermeneia Painting Manual by Dionysius of Fourna

ABSTRACT Painting manuals with technical and iconographical prescriptions served the needs of Greek icon painters during the post-Byzantine period. The circa 1730 CE Hermeneia of the art of painting was compiled by the hieromonk and icon painter Dionysius and is regarded as the most comprehensive pertinent Greek text. Dionysius’ Hermeneia was widely circulating among icon painters in the form of hand-written copies, many of which survive today. Most of these Hermeneia manuscripts are near-facsimiles of the Dionysius prototype text. Yet, two copies made by Father Ioannis Balpis, a Cretan icon painter, in 1782–83 CE offer an important expansion of the technical part. Here, the authors present the first ever translation of the hitherto unpublished Balpis’ Hermeneia technical additions that offer unique new insights into the materials and techniques of post-Byzantine painting. Moreover, through the critical evaluation of the Balpis additions, it is shown that the Dionysius technical part is by no means an exhaustive account of its contemporary technical knowledge.

Revealing the Materials, Painting Techniques, and State of Preservation of a Heavily Altered Early 19th Century Greek Icon through MA-XRF

Macroscopic X-ray fluorescence analysis (MA-XRF) is a non-destructive analytical technique that allows for the rapid and thorough investigation of paintings; therefore, it is nowadays increasingly involved in relevant studies. In the present work, a state-of-the-art MA-XRF set-up is utilized to identify the painting materials and techniques and document the state of preservation of an early 19th-century AD Greek religious panel painting (“icon”). The artifact in consideration has received extensive restoration interventions in the past and is considerably decayed; for these reasons, the interpretation of the relevant MA-XRF elemental intensity distribution maps is challenging. In this framework, it is demonstrated how the elemental distribution maps can be explored and interpreted to lead to a thorough investigation of the painting in consideration. In particular, the MA-XRF data interpretation allowed for the identification of the original palette that includes the rather rarely employed–in icon painting-yellow lead-antimonate pigment, led to the spotting of an invisible inscription, to the documentation of the preparation/gesso layer and the preliminary drawing. Additionally, it was possible to discriminate between the original painting and the later interventions, while the collected data revealed that the painting originally had two cross-bars attached to its back. Ultimately, the presented case study can be utilized as a guide for the proper interpretation of MA-XRF data from decayed and altered icons.

The Icon Prophet Elijah In The Desert With Life And Deesis of the Late 12th – Early 13th Centuries: Features of Iconography and Attribution

The icon Prophet Elijah in the Desert with Life and Devotion of the late 12th – early 13th century from the village of Vybuty near Pskov is the oldest living icon of the Kyivan Rus. The close connection of the icon with ancient Byzantine traditions is indicated by its unusual composition, where the author combines the images of Elijah in the center of the icon, the scenes from his life are on both sides and below, and above there are prayers with angels and apostles. In the scholars’ opinion, this rare plot combination is inspired by an ancient tradition – the icons are placed on the architrave of the altar partition on a similar principle in Byzantine temples. There is a very significant parallel for the structural construction of the monument – the arrangement of the fresco painting of the deaconicon of the Church of the Assumption (1252) in Morača (Montenegro), which is similar to a separate small church devoted to the prophet Elijah. The stylistic analysis of the monument and the Byzantine tradition of reproduction of ancient single images of the saints in the center of life icons makes it possible to suggest that the image borrowed from a monumental painting of a Sinai temple is reproduced in the center of the icon under study. Today it is impossible to find and determine with certainty an early Byzantine image of the prophet Elijah, which can be considered as a certain unit of reference for the following iconographic and artistic incarnations. However, it is well known that the most important role in the spread of Byzantine icons in the lands of Rus belongs to Kyiv. Greek icons have been transported from the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery to other principalities. Often the artists have been invited to the northern principalities. Another important factor is the existence in Kiev of the ancient Elijah’s Church, where there were undoubtedly early Byzantine icons of the prophet. The first mention (dated 944) of the church is found in the work of Nestor the Chronicler The Tale of Bygone Years. The iconographic and stylistic analyses of the monument give reasons to suppose that the studied icon reproduces early Byzantine traditions, borrowed directly from one or another imported monument or its interpretation in Kyiv art of pre-Mongolian times.

On the Red and Yellow Pigments of Post‐Byzantine Greek Icons*

Red and yellow pigments on more than 50 panel paintings were investigated. The studied artefacts dated from the mid‐15th to the mid‐19th centuries and came from regions in modern‐day Greece. Cinnabar and yellow ochres predominated. Ιn the case of the region of north‐west Greece there was a persistent use of orpiment and the employment of a peculiar ochre‐type pigment, while the rare lead‐antimony‐tin yellow was identified in an early 18th‐century Greek icon. Trends in pigments use during the post‐Byzantine period are revealed and compared with contemporary Western European ones. Recipes and terms of the Hermeneia manual are revisited in light of the analytical data, and pertinent misconceptions are restored.

Giorgio Damistra (1650-?), Theodoro Poulakis(1620-1692?) e il Barocco Levantino

This paper reports the recent discovery of the autograph of Giorgio da Mistra, an apprentice of the famous Greek icon painter Theodoro Poulakis, on an icon of Saint Demetrius. In order to check its authenticity and give a plausible dating, the Author compares the biography, pictorial technique and aesthetic orientation of both post-Byzantine painters. She further introduces little-known notices about the Russian acquisitions during the 19th century on the Italian antiquarian market that could have intercepted other Da Mistra’s works and, in general, are of potential interest for the study of the post-Byzantine painting.

Giorgio Damistra (1650-?), Theodoro Poulakis (1620-1692?) e il Barocco Levantino

This paper reports the recent discovery of the autograph of Giorgio da Mistra, an apprentice of the famous Greek icon painter Theodoro Poulakis, on an icon of Saint Demetrius. In order to check its authenticity and give a plausible dating, the Author compares the biography, pictorial technique and aesthetic orientation of both post-Byzantine painters. She further introduces little-known notices about the Russian acquisitions during the 19th century on the Italian antiquarian market that could have intercepted other Da Mistra’s works and, in general, are of potential interest for the study of the post-Byzantine painting.

On the blue and green pigments of post‐Byzantine Greek icons

In the framework of a large‐scale investigation of post‐1453 ce icons, the blue and green pigments on more than 50 works were investigated. Studied works date from the mid‐15th to the mid‐19th centuries and originate from various modern‐day Greek regions. Results indicate the use of both natural and artificial pigments; among the latter, the very poorly documented in Greek icons artificial Cu‐based blue is included. A shift as regards the use of specific pigments is reported and local trends are compared with the contemporary Western European ones. Relevant terms found in the renowned Hermeneia craftsman's handbook are also discussed in an attempt to restore pertinent misconceptions.

On the Metal‐Leaf Decorations of Post‐Byzantine Greek Icons

Metal leaves were widely used as decorative materials in post‐Byzantine ritual painting. Fifty‐two icons (mid‐15th to mid‐19th centuries) were studied by means of analytical techniques in order to reveal the materials and techniques encountered in their metal‐leaf decorations. High‐purity gold leaf was used throughout the studied period. Silver was employed rarely and mostly during the latter part of the period in consideration, while metal powders were mostly used from the mid‐18th century onwards. The identification of a gold–silver powder mixture and an ‘electrum’‐type alloy are among the reported findings, which are novel for post‐Byzantine icons. Three micromorphologically distinct highlighting techniques were also documented.

On The Grounds Of Post‐Byzantine Greek Icons

The grounds of 51 post‐Byzantine icons (Eastern Orthodox panel paintings) were studied by means of analytical techniques. The artefacts cover the period from the mid‐15th to the mid‐19th century and originate mainly from western (Epirus and the Ionian Islands) and southern Greece (Crete). The findings are examined in the light of technical recipes from related areas and eras, while special insights are gained from the exploration of a gypsum processing recipe by Dionysius of Fourna. A spectrum of ground fabrication practices that is richer than that reported so far or can be deduced from surviving Greek recipes is documented; three instances of ‘grosso‐sottile’ type grounds and a case of ‘inverse grosso‐sottile’ ground are among the reported novel, for post‐Byzantine icons, findings. Moreover, a case of an early icon restoration intervention is documented.

Egg yolk identification and aging in mixed paint binding media by NMR spectroscopy.

NMR spectroscopy is a powerful analytical tool for the identification and quantitative analysis of organic materials in a cultural heritage context. In this report, we present an analytical NMR protocol for the identification and semiquantification of egg yolk binders and mixed binding media that also contain a drying oil, namely linseed oil. The samples studied have been artificially and/or naturally aged in order to simulate the composition of organic materials in paintings. Analysis of the 1D and 2D NMR spectra showed that egg yolk can be identified even in binding media of considerable age via signals originating from cholesterol and/or cholesterol oxidation products present in the aged binding medium. Based on cholesterol-related and other lipid signals in the NMR spectra of egg yolk binders, a molecular marker (R/F) that suggests the presence of egg yolk in paint binders is proposed. Via this marker, the presence of egg yolk in the organic material obtained from an early 18th century Greek icon is confirmed, and this is further verified by 2D NMR spectroscopy. It is demonstrated that NMR molecular markers developed to estimate the hydrolysis/oxidation state of oil paintings are also suitable for the analysis of egg yolk and mixed medium (egg yolk-linseed oil) binders, indicating the generality of the NMR methodological approach in the analysis of organic materials in a cultural heritage context.

Pigment identification in a Greek icon by optical microscopy and infrared microspectroscopy

Abstract Optical microscopy, cross-section and fragment Micro-FTIR spectroscopic techniques along with microchemical tests were used for the identification of pigments in two different samples of an icon. Representing the Last Judgement, and painted by the Greek master Ioannis from the village of Kapesovo in the year 1771, the kneeling desk icon under investigation is a noteworthy contribution to the study of materials in post-Byzantine visual arts. The main components found in the ground layer of both samples were gypsum, beeswax and a proteinaceous material. Cinnabar, Prussian blue and cerussite were identified on the paint layers. The binding medium on the paint layers was weddelite. The materials used in the painting and ground layers were characterized in order to clarify the painting technique. Proteinaceous materials have been identified as binders for the pigments, indicating a tempera painting technique.

Material Aspects of Icons. A Review on Physicochemical Studies of Greek Icons

Holy icons created in the Byzantine era are a vital entity in Orthodox Christianity, a living tradition unbroken over more than 1500 years. The importance of these symbolic representations has inspired interdisciplinary studies to better understand the materials and process of their construction. Researchers from a variety of fields are working together to place icons in their proper historical and cultural framework, as well as to develop long-term conservation strategies. In this Account, we review very recent analytical results of the materials and painting methods used in the production of Byzantine iconography. The care of icons requires particular attention because of their function; icons are objects of veneration and, for the most part, still stand in today's churches to serve ritual practices. Accordingly, they are affected by random, fluctuating environmental conditions aggravated by public access. Because of the holiness of the icons, the typical tradition of the church is to periodically restore the depicted scenes, either by retouching any defects or by partial or complete overpainting. These interventions greatly increase the complexity of the paint stratigraphy. To reveal the extent and quality of the original painting under several historical overpaintings or dirt overlays on the icon, researchers usually pursue a manifold approach, combining complementary multispectral imaging and spectroscopic techniques nondestructively. Unfortunately, a visual and exhaustive spectroscopic examination of a minimum number of cross-sectional microsamples is almost always necessary to clarify the structure of the paint layers and map the constituent materials identified therein. A full understanding of these details is critical for assessing the painting methods, stylistic conventions, and compositional concepts that render the different iconographic details. Cross-sectional micro-Raman spectroscopy, although time-consuming, now affords the direct identification of the distinct grains of almost all of the inorganic pigments and inert components included in the paint layers. Micro-Raman studies are complemented and cross-checked by micro-FTIR and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) studies. This approach is essential in documenting the evolution of the materials and techniques used in creating icons over the centuries. Analytical data on Greek icons are now available for comparison with similar results from other important schools of iconography, such as in the eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, or Russia, or, further, with Western schools of painting. The research constitutes a reference base for identifying and solving analytical problems, such as those related to the organic materials found in icons that have not yet been systematically studied. Moreover, the results on icons are also generally applicable to important analytical issues encountered in studying any multilayered paint stratigraphies.

The contribution of gas chromatography to the resynthesis of the post-Byzantine artist’s technique

Gas chromatographic analysis of ethyl chloroformate derivatives of samples taken from the paint layers of post-Byzantine panel paintings permitted the successful characterisation of the different binding media used in them. This paper describes an analytical study of various post-Byzantine binding media such as egg yolk and egg/oil emulsion, using gas chromatography. The characterisation of these icons' binding media is an important task, as it contributes to our understanding of and the reconstruction of the post-Byzantine artists' palette. It also enables us to investigate the validity of our assumptions about the influences of Venetian style on Greek icon painting techniques from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth century, which up to now have been based on information in artists' handbooks. The methodology involves two experimental steps: (1) hydrolysis of the proteins and triglycerides in the binding media to obtain free amino acids and fatty acids, and (2) the formation of ethyl chloroformate derivatives via derivatization with ethyl chloroformate (ECF). This methodology is of considerable interest, since it permits the identifcation of the nature of the proteinaceous binders used in these works through the simultaneous derivatization and determination of amino acids and fatty acids. Advantages of this methodology include the small quantity of sample required and the minimum preparation time involved. The proteinaceous media can be determined based on the ratios of seven stable amino acids, while the type of emulsions and drying oils used can be determined from the fatty acid ratio.

Raman microscopy of Greek icons: identification of unusual pigments

Five Greek icons, made between the 15th and 18th centuries and now belonging to the Victoria and Albert Museum collections, were analysed by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), optical microscopy and Raman microscopy in order to determine the stratigraphy of the artworks and the identity of the pigments used. Together with common pigments, such as red lake, vermilion, red lead, red iron oxide, orpiment, yellow ochre, lead white, chalk, gypsum, anhydrite, Prussian blue, indigo and a copper-containing green, a few unusual materials were identified, specifically pararealgar (a yellow arsenic sulphide, As 4S 4), its precursor the χ-phase, and lead tin yellow type II (PbSn 1−xSi xO 3). Attention is drawn to the complementarity of the techniques used for the pigment identifications.

Holy Relic and Holy Image: Saints’ Relics in the western controversy over images in the eighth and ninth Centuries

Abstract This article addresses one aspect of the controversy over the use of religious images in I taly and Francia in the later eighth and ninth centuries. The point of departure is my conviction that so far the scholarship has not drawn enough attention to the role of saints' relics in that dispute. Some theologians in Charlemagne's court circle insisted that Greek icons were idols and that their use in worship amounted to a viohirlon of the Mosaic prohibition ofidolatry. Other western writers evidently thought this view of icons was at odds with the widespread and officially endorsed western practice of venerating the saints and their relics. Arguments about the proposed comparison between religious images and saints' relics show that there was no single attitude toward religious art in the West and that at least a few western authors understood some of the difficulties raised by the concept of holy things. I explore these issues by examining the place of holy relics in relation to religious art in the thought of four of the leading western participants in the controversy over religious art in the eighth and ninth centuries: Theodulf of Orléans, Claudius of Turin, Dungal, and Jonas of Orléans.

Thirteenth Century Crusader Icons on Mount Sinai

Owing to an uninterrupted history from its foundation by the Emperor Justinian until the present day, St. Catherine's monastery on Mount Sinai harbors within its walls the most outstanding collection of icons known today, not only in terms of numbers (there are more than two thousand), but also of age (the earliest date from the sixth century) and quality. Yet this collection is not a cross-section of Greek icon painting in which one might expect all aspects to be equally well represented. The collection intimately reflects the vicissitudes of this holy site which belonged to all Christendom and therefore comprises gifts of icons of many styles from many lands in often uneven proportions. There are certain gaps, e.g. within the Constantinopolitan icons from times when connections with the capital of the Byzantine empire were disrupted, while at the same time a new orientation led to a rapprochement with the Latin West during the period of the Crusader kingdom. A close cultural and artistic interrelationsh...

Byzantine Sacred Art: Selected Writings of the Contemporary Greek Icon Painter Fotis Kontoglous on the Sacred Arts according to the Tradition of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Constantine Cavarnos

Previous articleNext article No AccessReviewsByzantine Sacred Art: Selected Writings of the Contemporary Greek Icon Painter Fotis Kontoglous on the Sacred Arts according to the Tradition of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Constantine Cavarnos Kenneth John ConantKenneth John Conant Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Speculum Volume 33, Number 2Apr., 1958 The journal of the Medieval Academy of America Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.2307/2850789 Views: 1Total views on this site Copyright 1958 The Mediaeval Academy of AmericaPDF download Crossref reports no articles citing this article.

The Winged St. John the Baptist Two Examples in American Collections

There have recently been on exhibition in Princeton two icons which are of considerable interest chiefly because of the representation upon each of a winged figure of St. John the Baptist. One, a Russian icon, is the gift of Professor Allan Marquand to the Princeton University Art Museum. The other is a Greek icon in the possession of Professor Emerson Swift of the University of Michigan. Although they are of minor artistic value, they are interesting as survivals of the forms which Byzantine painting developed in the Middle Ages and which the preservative power of religious thought in the Orient kept practically unchanged. And like most of the paintings of the Orthodox church they should be regarded, not as ends in themselves, but as the means for the expression of a religious idea. The artists are theologians and they repeat old forms because these still adequately express the living religious thoughts of the people. It is this constancy which differentiates the art of the Eastern church from that of th...