Raman microscopy of Greek icons: identification of unusual pigments

Abstract

Five Greek icons, made between the 15th and 18th centuries and now belonging to the Victoria and Albert Museum collections, were analysed by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), optical microscopy and Raman microscopy in order to determine the stratigraphy of the artworks and the identity of the pigments used. Together with common pigments, such as red lake, vermilion, red lead, red iron oxide, orpiment, yellow ochre, lead white, chalk, gypsum, anhydrite, Prussian blue, indigo and a copper-containing green, a few unusual materials were identified, specifically pararealgar (a yellow arsenic sulphide, As 4S 4), its precursor the χ-phase, and lead tin yellow type II (PbSn 1−xSi xO 3). Attention is drawn to the complementarity of the techniques used for the pigment identifications.