Greek Flora Research Articles

Density-dependent development of the yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

Abstract The increasing global population has led to high food demand and the interest for alternative resources is highly topical. The interest in utilizing insects as a source of food and feed has been rapidly increasing, as the on-growing population has made the need for protein even more demanding. Insect rearing is economically viable, since they can be fed with organic waste and agricultural by-products. The inclusion of bioactive compounds and active ingredients in insect diets has been identified as a potential key factor for enhancing their growth and performance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a diet enriched with functional ingredients of medicinal and aromatic plants and agricultural by-products of the Greek flora on the growth, survival and development of larvae of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), in the context of larval density-induced stress. Wheat bran enriched with 5%, 10% or 20% of a prepared mixture containing post-distillation residues of medicinal and aromatic plants of the Greek flora (oregano, thyme, sage and rosemary, linseed oil, rock-samphire, industrial cannabis, and olive paste by-product) was evaluated as insect feeding substrate, whereas wheat bran alone (0% enrichment) served as control. Groups of 25, 50, 75 and 100 first instar larvae were separately collected, weighed, and put in cylindrical plastic cups to test if larval density had any effect on survival and development. According to our results, the final larval weight of T. molitor is significantly affected by the density of larvae but not by the rearing substrate. The highest individual weight among all tested substrates was achieved at the density of 25 larvae. Individual weights were highest when larvae were reared on 5% mixture. The weight of those reared on the control substrate was slightly lower, followed by the 10% and 20% mixtures. Larvae fed with 10% enriched substrate showed the highest survival rate, followed closely by those fed with the control and 5% substrates. Our results clearly demonstrate that larval survival is not density dependent, but density is important in the case of individual larval weight.

Occurrence of Luteolin in the Greek Flora, Isolation of Luteolin and Its Action for the Treatment of Periodontal Diseases

Higher plants possess the ability to synthesize a great number of compounds with many different functions, known as secondary metabolites. Polyphenols, a class of flavonoids, are secondary metabolites that play a crucial role in plant adaptation to both biotic and abiotic environments, including UV radiation, high light intensity, low/high temperatures, and attacks from pathogens, among others. One of the compounds that has received great attention over the last few years is luteolin. The objective of the current paper is to review the extraction and detection methods of luteolin in plants of the Greek flora, as well as their luteolin content. Furthermore, plant species, crop management and environmental factors can affect luteolin content and/or its derivatives. Luteolin exhibits various biological activities, such as cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antibacterial ones. As a result, luteolin has been employed as a bioactive molecule in numerous applications within the food industry and the biomedical field. Among the different available options for managing periodontitis, dental care products containing herbal compounds have been in the spotlight owing to the beneficial pharmacological properties of the bioactive ingredients. In this context, luteolin’s anti-inflammatory activity has been harnessed to combat periodontal disease and promote the restoration of damaged bone tissue.

Przedstawienia i symbolika roślin w poezji Pindara

The extensive use of plant motifs is at the heart of Pindar’s poetic images and metaphors. In his epinicions, the poet uses the symbolism of plants associated with Olympian and Pythian games to praise the victor and to show the importance of his achievement. The olive and laurel wreaths with which the victorious athletes are crowned become symbols of excellence and of the immortal fame accompanying human achievements, which is guaranteed by the poet’s song. Spring flowers such as roses and violets have a specific ritual meaning in Pindar’s cult songs, especially in his dithyrambs, where they symbolize vitality and rebirth. Aside from the plants typical of Greek flora, the Theban poet mentions those with miraculous properties, distinguished by their golden colour, which are associated with the divine and characteristic of sacred places and mythical landscape with paradisical connotations. Therefore, the symbolic meaning of floral imagery in Pindar’s Laments and in some passages from his victory songs cannot be recognized without taking into account its eschatological context.

Identification of Bioactive Compounds in Plant Extracts of Greek Flora and Their Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity

This study examined five species of the Lamiaceae family, Origanum vulgare L., Origanum dictamnus L., Origanum majorana L., Mentha spicata L. and Lavandula angustifolia L., and one species of the Hypericaceae family, Hypericum perforatum L., for their potential to enhance health and wellbeing or to prevent diseases. An analysis of secondary metabolites was performed by mass spectrometry and HPLC coupled with diode array detection to determine the phenolic compounds included in the plant extracts. The samples were evaluated for their total phenolic content, antioxidant potential, ability to prevent DNA scission caused by peroxyl radicals and antimicrobial activity against pathogens (MIC). All the samples, except Lavandula angustifolia L., had a high DPPH radical scavenging activity and showed significant antibacterial activity. Origanum majorana L. demonstrated the lowest IC50 value (10.31 μg·mL−1). Extracts of medicinal herbs had a remarkably high phenolic content varying between 428 and 1512.74 μg GAE/mg of dry extract, with Origanum vulgare L. having the largest amount of polyphenols. Moreover, the plant extracts exhibited a high level of resistance against DNA damage, with Origanum majorana L. showing the greatest level of protection with 98.05% inhibition. According to the results of this study, these plants from the Greek flora provide beneficial effects for health as natural antioxidants. A baseline can be established through the analysis of the findings of this survey for future research on the same plant species.

From the Wild to the Field: Documentation, Propagation, Pilot Cultivation, Fertilization, and Phytochemical Evaluation of the Neglected and Underutilized Amelanchier ovalis Medik. (Rosaceae)

The snowy Mespilus, or serviceberry (Amelanchier ovalis Medik., Rosaceae) represents a neglected and underutilized small fruit tree species with high nutritional value. In this work, we present the results of a long-term study facilitating the sustainable exploitation of A. ovalis as a new germplasm resource from the Greek flora. Ten wild-growing population samples of A. ovalis have been collected from natural habitats in northern Greece. Asexual propagation trials on these materials delivered successful propagation (83.3% rooting) on a selected genotype via leafy cuttings of young, primary, non-lignified soft wood with the application of the rooting hormone. The ex situ cultivation potential of the selected genotype has been evaluated under distinct fertilization regimes in a pilot field trial. Three-year results of this ongoing trial have shown that A. ovalis does not require external nutrient enhancement to be established during its early stages since plant growth rates between conventional fertilization and control plants were similar for the first two years and higher compared to organic fertilization. Conventional fertilization delivered higher fresh fruit production in the third year, with higher fruit number and fruit size compared to organic fertilization and control plants. The phytochemical potential of the cultivated genotype was assessed via the total phenolic content and radical scavenging activity of separate extracts from leaves, twigs, flowers, and young fruits, which revealed that individual plant organs have strong antioxidant activity despite their moderate total phenolic content. The multifaceted approach applied herein has provided novel data that may set the framework for further applied research toward the sustainable agronomic exploitation of Greek A. ovalis as a diversified superfood crop.

Herb Sector in Greece: Training Needs and Perspectives

The Greek flora is rich in native herbaceous plants and due to the Mediterranean climate, there are optimal climatic and soil conditions for their cultivation. Herbs play a very important role in the Greek rural economy and facilitate change in the national agro-food sector as it is still developing. In recent years, this sector has become an area of interest. Many farmers changed their old crops into new cultivations like herbs. This development requires investments, training programs, new studies, and projects in order to enrich the knowledge and skills of all the participants involved in the value chain. HEGO is a Black Sea Project, funded by the European Union, and one of its main goals is the modernization of enterprises associated with the cultivation, production, and promotion of diversified, sustainable, value-added herb products, as well as the enhancement of cross-border trade opportunities for local herb enterprises in participating Black Sea Basin countries (Greece, Moldova, Georgia, and Armenia). This paper explores the current situation of the herb sector in Greece regarding the cultivation, processing legislation, managerial issues, and the trade value of herb products. More specifically, its purpose is to investigate the current skills and expertise in herbs of the participants in Greece. Additionally, this paper explores the future training needs in relation to the above mention topics. Descriptive statistics, SWOT, and PEST analysis were performed. The main results of this research revealed the lack of knowledge of wildcrafting practices and trading. The importance of further training was highlighted, especially in marketing and trading skills. These findings can be used to develop training curricula and courses in order to cope with potential threats in the herb sector in Greece.
 Keywords: herbs, Greece, training needs, skills, knowledge

Phytochemical Characterization of Phitosia crocifolia, a Monotypic Representative of Greek Flora.

Within the large Compositae family, Phitosia is considered a monotypic genus of the Greek flora, with its only species P.crocifolia (Boiss. & Heldr.) Kamari & Greuter growing wild with limited distribution, exclusively on the mountains Taigetos and Parnonas in Peloponnese. P. crocifolia's chemical profile was obtained, herein, for the first time and led to the isolation of 20 compounds, thirteen of which were characterized as sesquiterpene lactones and the rest mainly as phenolic derivatives. The isolates 1: -3, 5: - 7: and 11: - 13: represent new chemical structures. Compounds 2: and 3: especially are substituted with a pentose moiety, a rare phenomenon in sesquiterpene lactone backbones. A series of spectrometric and spectroscopic techniques were used to elucidate their structures. The relative configurations of the unreported compounds were established via extensive analysis of NMR spectroscopic and HRESIMS data, assisted by CD spectroscopic measurements. Throughout the entire isolation procedure, selected fractions rich in sesquiterpene lactones were tested against HeLa cancerous cell line for their cytotoxic effects with the lowest IC50 values being 18.84 µg/mL. Accordingly, among the tested isolates, compounds 5: and 9: exerted IC50 values of 13.5 µM and 11.4 µM, respectively.

Identification of compounds derived from the Greek flora with anti-aggregation properties

Identification of compounds derived from the Greek flora with anti-aggregation properties

Thirty-two new and noteworthy floristic records from north-eastern Greece.

BackgroundThe vascular flora of Greece comprises no less than 6,705 vascular plant taxa (species and subspecies, including established aliens) in an area of 131,957 km2. The phytogeographic region of north-east Greece (NE), an area characterised by physiographic diversity, is the richest floristic region in Greece, yet it remains less-explored compared to other regions.New informationWe present an annotated inventory of 32 vascular plant taxa collected predominantly from the East Macedonia and Thrace Regions (Makedonia and Thraki, NE Greece), following fieldwork that took place between 2013 and 2021. In our results, we identify seven new additions to the Greek flora (Aethionemasaxatilesubsp.rhodopaeum, Anthericumramosum, Asteramellus, Euphorbiacarniolica, Hesperismatronalissubsp.matronalis, Saponariastranjensis and Silenefetlerii) and 25 new records to the regional Greek flora consisting of mostly rare Balkan endemics of a restricted distribution and presumable conservation priorities. Taxonomic comments are added, where necessary. IUCN threat categories are assigned to certain taxa. Our investigation highlights the importance of the Balkan border areas as a source of new floristic elements for single countries and points to the importance of range-restricted taxa, in addition to single-country endemics, to address plants with a narrow distribution pattern.

Climate Change Impacts and Extinction Risk Assessment of Nepeta Representatives (Lamiaceae) in Greece

The ongoing climate change has already left its imprint on species distributions, with rare, endemic species being more threatened. These changes are more prominent in regional biodiversity hotspots, such as Greece, which is already facing the short term impacts of human induced climate change. Greek flora hosts numerous endemic medicinal and aromatic plant taxa (MAPs), which are economically important and provide integral ecosystem services. The genus Nepeta is one of the largest Lamiaceae genera, containing several MAPs, yet, despite its taxonomical and economical significance, it remains vastly understudied in Greece. We explore the effects of climate change on the range of the Greek endemic Nepeta MAPs, via a species distribution models (SDMs) approach in an ensemble modeling framework, using soil, topographical and bioclimatic variables as predictors in three different time steps. By doing so, we attempt to estimate the current and future extinction risk of these taxa and to locate their current and future species richness hotspots in Greece. The taxa analyzed are expected to experience severe range retractions, with minor intraspecific variation across all time steps (p > 0.05), driven mainly by soil- and aridity-related variables. The extinction risk status of only one taxon is predicted to worsen in the future, while all other taxa will remain threatened. Current species richness hotspots are mainly located in southern Greece and are projected to shift both altitudinally and latitudinally over time (p < 0.01).

PALAEOXYLOTOMICAL STUDIES IN THE CENOZOIC PETRIFIED FORESTS OF GREECE. PART TWO – CONIFERS

This paper reports the palaeoxylotomical study of petrified conifer remains from Velitzelos collection, orig-inating from some fossiliferous sites of Greece, especially from the Aegean area (Evros, Limnos, Lesbos), aged of late Oligocene to early Miocene. Ten species were identified: Cupressinoxylon akdikii, Juniperoxylon acarcae, Tetraclinoxylon velitzelosii, Taxodioxylon gypsaceum, Taxodioxylon taxodii, Glyptostroboxylon rudolphii, Glyptostroboxylon tenerum, Pinuxylon pineoides, Pinuxylon halepensoides and Pinuxylon sp. aff. Pinus canariensis. These new identifications add new elements to the forest assemblages of the Oligocene - Miocene Greek flora, useful for understanding the evolution of the Cenozoic palaeovegetation and palaeoclimate in the Aegean area.

Phytochemical Study and In Vitro Screening Focusing on the Anti-Aging Features of Various Plants of the Greek Flora.

Skin health is heavily affected by ultraviolet irradiation from the sun. In addition, senile skin is characterized by major changes in the collagen, elastin and in the hyaluronan content. Natural products (NPs) have been shown to delay cellular senescence or in vivo aging by regulating age-related signaling pathways. Moreover, NPs are a preferable source of photoprotective agents and have been proven to be useful against the undesirable skin hyperpigmentation. Greek flora harvests great plant diversity with approximately 6000 plant species, as it has a wealth of NPs. Here, we report an extensive screening among hundreds of plant species. More than 440 plant species and subspecies were selected and evaluated. The extracts were screened for their antioxidant and anti-melanogenic properties, while the most promising were further subjected to various in vitro and cell-based assays related to skin aging. In parallel, their chemical profile was analyzed with High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) and/or Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS). A variety of extracts were identified that can be of great value for the cosmetic industry, since they combine antioxidant, photoprotective, anti-melanogenic and anti-aging properties. In particular, the methanolic extracts of Sideritis scardica and Rosa damascena could be worthy of further attention, since they showed interesting chemical profiles and promising properties against specific targets involved in skin aging.

<p><strong>The type specimens in Eugen von Halácsy´s <em>Herbarium Graecum</em></strong></p>

Greece, as one of the European biodiversity hotspots, is long since in the focus of botanical investigations. Among historical researchers significantly contributing to the floristic and taxonomic exploration was Eugen von Halácsy, a Viennese physician and botanist. He was the first and so far last author of a complete Greek flora, the Conspectus Florae Graecae, and has compiled a seminal herbarium collection of plant specimens originating from Greece. This Herbarium Graecum of approx. 26,000 vouchers, is today held by the Herbarium of the University of Vienna (WU). Investigations for original material in this collection yielded a total of 1,439 (approx. 5.5 %) vouchers. The current type status was checked for the entire material, the vouchers were databased, photographed and geo-referenced, and the data are made publicly available here. These results are presented in an annotated catalogue including 19 lectotypifications, in order to contribute to the still extremely active field of plant biodiversity research in Greece.

Noteworthy new floristic records from Greece

This contribution to the Greek flora includes distribution extensions and taxonomic notes for some noteworthy plant taxa. New records for certain phytogeographical regions of Greece are presented for: Arum cylindraceum, Convolvulus pentapetaloides. Cruciata taurica, Galanthus reginae-olgae subsp. vernalis, Ilex aquifolium, Linum decumbens, Lythrum thymifolia, Sedum praesidis, Silene congesta and Trifolium diffusum. Allium karistanum, Helichrysum amorginum, Limonium antipaxorum and L. cephalonicum have been recorded for the first time on some islands. New populations of Allium maniaticum and A. ritsii, previously known only from their loci classici, were discovered in the Peloponnese. Valeriana alliariifolia, Silene auriculata subsp. auriculata and Symphytum creticum were rediscovered in central Evvia, confirming long-lost historical records from previous centuries. The presence of V. alliariifolia in Greece and Europe is confirmed for the first time since the 19th century.

Isoflavonoid Profiling and Estrogen-Like Activity of Four Genista Species from the Greek Flora.

As part of our ongoing research on phytoestrogens, we investigated the phytochemical profile and estrogen-like activities of eight extracts from the aerial parts of four Genista species of Greek flora using estrogen-responsive cell lines. Ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts of G. acanthoclada, G. depressa, G. hassertiana, and G. millii were obtained with accelerated solvent extraction and their phytochemical profiles were compared using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (uHPLC-HRMS). Fourteen isoflavonoids, previously isolated from G. halacsyi, were used as reference standards for their identification in the extracts. Thirteen isoflavonoids were detected in both extracts of G. acanthoclada and G. hassertiana, while fewer and far fewer were detected in G. millii and G. depressa, respectively. The ethyl acetate extracts of G. hassertiana and G. acanthoclada displayed 2.45- and 1.79-fold higher, respectively, estrogen-like agonist activity in Ishikawa cells compared to MCF-7 cells at pharmacologically relevant concentrations. Both these extracts, but not that of G. depressa, contained mono- and di-O-β-d-glucosides of genistein as well as the aglycone, all three of which are known to display full estrogen-like activity at lower-than-micromolar concentrations. The possibility of using preparations rich in G. hassertiana and/or G. acanthoclada extracts as a potentially safer substitute for low-dose vaginal estrogen for menopausal symptoms is discussed.

Bioactivity and toxicity evaluation of infusions from selected Greek herbs

Plants used in water infusions, as aromatic or refreshing hot beverages, are the most consumed drinkable forms of herbs worldwide; used for centuries due to their perceived medicinal and preventive properties. The aim of this study was to assess the bioactivity and toxicity of 9 herbal infusions originating from Greek flora. To measure the total phenolic content, antioxidant activity and potential toxicity of each species, spectrophotometric assays, in vitro bioluminescence inhibition of Vibrio fischeri and mammalian renal cells viability assays were used. Significant total phenolic content (0.11–2.90 mg caffeic acid equivalents/mL) and antioxidant activity (0.103–11.7 μug Trolox equivalents/mL) were obtained and were positively correlated in most of the herbal infusions. Species-specific inhibition was observed using both bioassays. Tarragon and chamomile infusions showed the highest inhibition of Vibrio fischeri. Yarrow and sage showed the highest toxicity towards renal cells, while chamomile, linden and valerian infusions showed no signs of toxicity. A direct correlation between sage extract dosage and renal toxicity was observed. The results suggested that herbal infusions may be potential natural antioxidants with supplementary bioactivity, but also may have some potential toxicity.

The botanical exploration of Greece

The botanical exploration of Greece from Sibthorp (1786–1787) to the present time is outlined. Biographical sketches are given for the main contributors from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century. Important names are Sibthorp, Sieber, Dumont d’Urville, Bory de Saint-Vincent, Grisebach, Heldreich, Orphanides, Halacsy and Rechinger. These pioneers laid the foundations for contemporary research on the Greek flora which is also briefly described.

Palaeoxylotomical studies in the Cenozoic petrified forests of Greece. Part one – palms

Abstract The paper reports a palaeoxylotomical study of petrified palm remains (stem, root, rachis) collected from some fossil sites of Greece (Evros, Lemnos, Lesbos and Kastoria) aged to the late Oligocene to early Miocene. Five species of Palmoxylon were identified: P. daemonoropsoides (Unger) Kirchheimer, corr., P. chamaeropsoides Iamandei et Iamandei, sp. nov., P. coryphoides Ambwani et Mehrotra, P. sabaloides Greguss, P. trachycarpoides Iamandei et Iamandei, sp. nov. and P. phoenicoides Hofmann. Also found were two species of Rhizopalmoxylon (R. daemonoropsoides Iamandei et Iamandei, sp. nov., R. phoenicoides Iamandei et Iamandei, sp. nov.) and Palmocaulon sp. aff. Phoenix L. These new identifications add new elements to the forest assemblages of the Oligocene–Miocene Greek flora, useful for understanding the evolution of the Cenozoic palaeoclimate in the Aegean area.

Effect of glycine betaine, polyvinylpyrrolidone and D-mannitol on micropropagation of Sideritis raeseri Boiss and Heldr. subsp. Raeseri.

Despite being protected, the number of plants that belong to Sideritis genus has decreased in the last years due to the urbanization of its natural habitat. Sideritis raeseri Boiss and Heldr. subsp. raeseri known as mountain tea of Parnassus or Velouchi is a valuable genetic resource of the Greek flora because of its special characteristics, so, the development of a micropropagation protocol is crucial to its conservation and use in breeding programs. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the effects of glycine betaine (GB), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP-10) and D-mannitol applied in different concentrations in combination with auxins [α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), indole-3-butyric acid (IBA)] on shoot proliferation and rooting of shoot-tip explants of the studied species. Better shoot proliferation results were obtained in the following two combination treatments: (1) 100 mg/l GB + 0.5 mg/l NAA (5.5 shoots/explant 2.34 cm long, 75% shoot multiplication), and (2) 2.5 g/l D-mannitol + 3 mg/l IBA (2.92 shoot/explant 83.33% shoot multiplication percentage). In relation to rooting, better results were performed only with PVP at 0.5 g/l applied simultaneously with 0.5 mg/l NAA (12 roots/rooted microcutting, 1.47 cm root length, 90% rooting). The ex vitro survival percentage of rooted microcuttings derived from all 5 experiments was ranged between 68% and 93%.

Homeric Imagery and the Natural Environment by William Brockliss

BOOK REVIEWS/COMPTES RENDUS Homeric Imagery and the Natural Environment. By William Brockliss. Cambridge , MA and London: Harvard University Press (Hellenic Studies 82). 2019. Pp. x, 293. This book adds to the small but growing number of studies dedicated to the application of cognitive linguistic insights to ancient texts. In the publisher’s description it is prominently presented as a response to George Lakoff and Mark Johnson’s influential analysis of metaphor, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago 1980), which has sparked renewed interest in metaphor and figurative language in many fields. In short, their claim is that metaphor is a universal cognitive process (rather than a mere figure of speech), drawing on concrete concepts from a “source domain” to illustrate and facilitate understanding of more abstract concepts of a “target domain.” After brief introductory comments on the Greek natural environment, the idiosyncrasies of Homeric poetry, and the work of Lakoff and Johnson (1–15), William Brockliss proposes to study images of nature in epic poetry, especially vegetal imagery, and how they are employed to aid the audience’s understanding of abstract concepts.The point of origin of his investigation is to query what information about the concrete source domain of Greek vegetation can be gleaned from its representation in vegetal imagery.1 Despite taking a particular source domain as its starting point, the book’s main section is divided into three parts according to target domains that are frequently illustrated through floral and arboreal images in Homeric poetry, “Flowers and Erotic Bodies” (17–83), “Cosmic and Civic Order” (85–172), and “Youth and Death” (173–235), each again subdivided into three shorter chapters presenting the individual arguments. In Part One, Brockliss investigates floral imagery in reference to eroticism. On the basis of a comparison with occurrences in the lyric poets, he argues that floral imagery can explore two different configurations of the relationship between subject and object: while in lyric poetry flowers are employed to highlight the beauty of the object of desire, adornment with flowers in erotic contexts in Homeric poetry is often a means of indicating the deception and seduction of the gazing subject. Brockliss proceeds to explain these different configurations expressed through floral imagery with the concept of poik’lon, which encompasses ideas of both variegation and vicissitude, pointing out that the colorful blooming of the Greek flora occurs only for a brief and fleeting period of time before disappearing again, yielding to the arid landscape and thereby providing the grounds for the notion of deception. Part Two adopts a parallel procedure in comparing the floral and arboreal imagery of Homeric poetry with the Hesiodic epics, where these images illustrate the concepts of cosmic structure and civic order. However, the Homeric imagery is more complex in this regard and also covers the negative counterparts of disorder and upheaval. Brockliss proposes a sensible differentiation between wild vegetation and managed growths, which shows how the Greeks must have perceived their environment. This approach leads to 1 Note that another recent study of Homeric metaphor following cognitive linguistic theory, A. T. Zanker, Metaphor in Homer: Time, Speech, and Thought (Cambridge 2019), takes the opposite approach, looking at the target domains and their respective metaphors with no restrictions of the source domains. PHOENIX, VOL. 73 (2019) 3–4. 394 BOOK REVIEWS/COMPTES RENDUS 395 a fourfold schematic of plant imagery, each with its own distinctive linguistic markers, arranged along an increasing scale of organization: smaller plants and especially flowers (indicated through present, future, and aorist tenses of fœv, “[to] grow, sprout”) are particularly unruly and indicate both cosmic and civic disorder, while larger wild plants and trees (expressed with perfect or pluperfect forms of fœv) can signify both cosmic order on the basis of their stability and civic disorder due to their unregulated growth; on the other hand, both cultivated cereals (marked out by use of the root *úr-, “[to] plant”) and the controlled growth of trees in orchards (characterized through the substantival stem futo/e) are indicators of civic order, but the latter to a higher degree. In Part Three, Brockliss develops the argument that vegetal images in Homeric epic serve as a means of pointing out death...