Greek City-states Research Articles

Les jeux panhelléniques dans les rapports entre les cités grecques d'Europe et d'Asie

This article focuses in a first part on the four main games that brought together the Greeks of Europe and those of Asia. These four major contests were the Olympic Games, Isthmian Games, Pythian Games, and Nemean Games. In addition, it highlights the conclusion of the truces which were considered an essential condition for the organization of these games. In a second part, the study shows that Greeks came from all cities to participate in the games. It also mentions the honor both an athlete and a city derived from a victory during these games. Finally, the study addresses the fact that the games were opportunities to strengthen the bonds of cultural kinship between Greek city-states and occasions for diplomatic negotiations.

Divine Intervention and the Unity of the Greeks during the Persian Invasion

Herodotus’ Histories shows that the Persian invasion of Greece of 480-479 BCE revealed divisions among Greek city-states. Despite these divisions, this article argues that the work also relates how Greek gods and heroes remained united in repelling the Persians, providing a lesson to Herodotus’ Panhellenic audience. To this end, the paper examines the sacred topography related to divine interventions in four narratives in the Histories: the Sepias shipwreck, the Persian siege of Delphi, the burning of the AthenianAcropolis’ olive tree, and the battle of Plataiai. Through an analysis of these narratives and their topography, the article explores how the Histories emphasizes the unified force of Greek divinities in the conflict.

Democracy and Reflections on 25 Years of Indonesian Reformation

Democracy has grown since the time of Ancient Greek civilization with the concept of Greek city states and Athens in 450 BC and 350 BC. Even in 431 BC, Pericles, a well-known Athenian statesman, defined democracy by putting forward several criteria: (1) government by the people with full and direct participation of the people; (2) equality before the law; (3) pluralism, namely respect for all talents, interests, desires and views; and (4) respect for a separation and personal area to meet and express individual personality (Roy C Macridis, 1983:19-20). In the same era, we can also get acquainted with the political thoughts of Plato, Aristotle, Polybius and Cicero, etc., to mention some of the thinkers of that time, who also laid the foundations for the notion of democracy. During its development, the concept of democracy underwent an increasing fertile phase and moved towards moderation during the Renaissance. So far, great thoughts have arisen about the relationship between the two rulers or the state on the one hand and the people on the other. There are new and surprising thoughts about the power and thought of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). On the Social Contract and the Separation of Powers by Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), Jhon Locke (1632-1704). Many of these big names have thoughts of contributing significantly to efforts to redefine or implement the term democracy.

The Spear, The Scroll and The Pebble. How the Greek City-State Developed as a Male Warrior-Citizen Collective (R.A.) Billows Pp. 304. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2023. Paper, £24.99. ISBN-13: 978-1350289208

The Spear, The Scroll and The Pebble. How the Greek City-State Developed as a Male Warrior-Citizen Collective (R.A.) Billows Pp. 304. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2023. Paper, £24.99. ISBN-13: 978-1350289208

The National Identity of Ancient and Modern Greeks

The issue of national identity in ancient Greece played an important role during periods of war due to the absence of a unifying political authority. Ancient Greece was organized along the lines of independent city-states with different political systems. However, in two wars, they were able to unite to combat a common enemy of Greece. In the Greek-Trojan War, the Greeks were the aggressors, and many Greek city-states responded to the call for joint action. In the Greek-Persian War, the Greeks defended their homeland. Once again, the Greek city-states, primarily Athens and Sparta, joined forces to repel the Persian invasion of mainland Greece. Homer, in his Iliad, and Herodotus, in his Histories, provide definitions of what Greek national identity was all about. By the time of the civil war, i.e., the Peloponnesian War, there appears to be a paradigm shift in what constitutes Greek national identity. The best definition within the context of this paradigm is given by Isocrates. This paper examines the national identity of Greeks as proposed mainly in the works of Homer, Herodotus, and Isocrates. It also explores the 19th-century controversy regarding whether modern Greeks have the same national identity as their ancient counterparts. Keywords: national identity, education, Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, Isocrates, virtue, ancient Greeks, modern Greeks.

The Significance of Modern Agreements Between Greece and Egypt as Secondary Readings: the echoes of Herodotus and Thucydides

Greece and Egypt, developed individually in two continents Europe and Africa, respectively, have maintained long beneficial relations since pre-historic times. The earliest evidence of Greek-Egyptian relations was uncovered from Minoan excavations that date back to 3000 BCE. Considering the literary sources available to examine the nature of contacts between Greece and Egypt, the Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides from the 5th century BCE reveal evidently reliable information on the bilateral agreements that prevailed between the two nations. Historians relate stories on how these two nations significantly relied on times of need during the 5th century BCE war periods. While Egypt was the grain supplier for Greek city-states, specifically Athens, Athenians repaid Egypt by extending their military power to Egypt. Further, as history reveals, both nations maintained strong trade links. Fast-forwarding to modern diplomatic relations, Greece and Egypt have continued their relations with each other up to the 21st century, irrespective of the fact that the cultures of both nations have evolved with many developments and advances. This research paper explores the contemporary importance of the bilateral agreements between Greece and Egypt, drawing parallels with the historical narratives of Herodotus and Thucydides. The paper follows a historical method in analysing the narrative of history and an analytical approach in reading the modern agreements taken under discussion. The paper intends to analyse how modern agreements between these two nations reflect and reminiscence the historical interactions, emphasizing the political, economic, and cultural significance between these powerful nations in the Mediterranean basin. By examining the historical context, the paper aims to shed light on the enduring diplomatic and cultural ties between Greece and Egypt, offering valuable knowledge for international relations in the present and future.

Jakobińska wolność opresyjna

The advice of oppressive freedom in Western culture dates back to ancient times, including those principles of democracy that were implemented in Greek city-states. It changed forms of expression together with Christianity gaining the position of the dominant religion. However, this Christianization over the centuries encountered such unbelievers or infidels who were not willing to subscribe to the Christian conviction that surrendering to the slavery of God and the Church representing Him on earth is the best way to free oneself from various sins. In the 16th and 17th centuries, attempts were made to justify oppressive freedom with earthly needs. In the eighteenth century, however, such social forces came to the fore, which, regardless of the existing beliefs, implemented its form, which in the final phase was primarily terror. It was Jacobin oppressive freedom. Later, various political forces in Western Europe distanced themselves from it, but in Eastern Europe they added their card to it under the title – communist terror.

Metics and Freedmen: Conflicts of Social and Juridical Status in the Classical and Hellenistic Greek World

Abstract Ancient Greek city-states, or poleis, had a bewildering number of terms for people who lived in them. In Athens, freedmen seem to be assimilated juridically to the status of metics (resident aliens), although socially there were ways of both denigrating freedmen and obscuring the distinction between metic and freed. Elsewhere we can see that under some circumstances distinctions between metic and freed were made, but not in ways that point to strong juridical differences. By looking at the development of both statuses historically, I propose that the juridical assimilation occurred in Athens because metic status was created first, in an historical context in which distinctions between citizens and foreigners was crucial: an imperial power with a strong economy was attracting many foreigners to the mother city. This line drawn between citizens and foreigners was expressed through the law in both the fifth and fourth centuries bce. But the social perception of metics changed in the fourth century, for historical reasons deriving from the assimilation of metics and freed into one category. Other areas of the Greek world with both metics and freedmen may have assimilated the two statuses initially, but over time split them apart.

Bárbaros y otros extranjeros en la Atenas clásica: el testimonio de los epitafios

Las notas sobre los extranjeros y sus orígenes étnicos en la literatura clásica ateniense son pocas y dispersas. Las inscripciones funerarias proporcionan una información más comprensiva y más detallada, y suministran un amplio material de nombres con étnicos. Incluyen sobre todo a inmigrantes libres de nacimiento, entre ellos a muchas mujeres, quienes probablemente disfrutaban de una vida más independiente que las mujeres atenienses. La gran mayoría de los inmigrantes tiene étnicos que revelan la ciudadanía de varias ciudades-estado griegas. Los extranjeros con étnico bárbaro no constituyen más de un 10%, un hecho interesante a la luz de la afirmación de Jenofonte (Poroi, 2, 3) que, con toda probabilidad, es una exageración psicológicamente fácil de explicar.

History and Cartography meet youth through Digital Technology

Through collaboration between the Onassis Foundation, the Historical Archive of the National Bank of Greece, and the Vocational Senior High School of Kamatero, an innovative digital project was developed that is both trendy and geared towards youth. This project showcases how a concept aimed at emphasizing the historical significance of the Capital of Greece inspired students to merge the disciplines of Computer Science and History, resulting in the creation of a 3D game on a popular platform. Additionally, this project demonstrates how Project-based learning can be achieved through collaborative and inquiry-based learning, real-world connections, initiative, and the satisfaction of creating something new. The impetus for the cooperation was the Panhellenic Student Competition of the Onassis Foundation, "Hack the Map: Imaginary Worlds." This competition invited schools to promote the cultural heritage of Greece, especially cartographic exhibits/evidence of the old days, through students' digital projects. The Historical Archive of the National Bank of Greece, which is a significant resource for studying Modern Greek History through primary sources, reached out to the Vocational Senior High School of Kamatero, located in the western sector of Athens, to work on a project. The school has an IT department, among other disciplines. In close collaboration, they developed a scenario that is about the civil war that occurred in Athens during the Interregnum period (October 1862-October 1863) after the dethronement of Greece's first king, Otto I. The scenario highlights the bloody events that took place between political factions in the city. In these conflicts, the implication of "Kyriakos," a dangerous leader of robbers, is a paradoxical historical event that stimulated the 2nd-grade Informatics students' imagination. Therefore, they created a 3D digital game entitled "Thieves and Policemen in the newly established Greek city-state: Iouniana." This presentation intends to demonstrate how the students' team of the Vocational School of Kamatero rebuilt Athenian monuments related to Kyriakos' action in a 3D environment; how they reconstructed the cartography of the capital's center during the second half of the 19th century based on these monuments and how they utilized digital resources (maps, photos, and texts) and books proposed by NBG Historical Archives; how a single player, via Kyriakos' persona, has to accomplish missions-battles and match parts of Athens' map of that era; and finally, how students narrated a historical event in a game constructed in Roblox platform inviting other young people to involve history knowledge.

It Seemed Like Such a Good Idea at the Time … - Expected and Unexpected Consequences when Athens & Other Major Greek City States Leveraged Philip V to Draw Rome into the Eastern Mediterranean

The grand theme of the "liberation of Greece" is peculiar in the second and first centuries B.C. by being proclaimed more often by outsiders than by Greeks, and far more often by outsiders than by Athenians. The Athens that ultimately became wholly Roman after the disastrous hostage crisis provoked by Mithridatic forces on the Acropolis in the 80's started down that road by joining with a few other Greek city states to call in Roman aid against Philip V of Macedon in the 190's, and did so, arguably, believing it could leverage a projection of force by a war-weary Roman Republic to make itself again political master of the Greek mainland. To attract Roman aid against the raids of Philip V's Macedon, Athens and its allies had to make both a case that Macedon posed a genuine threat to the eastern Mediterranean (and to Rome, in the aftermath of its war against Hannibal, and Philip's apparent offer to support that war), and the case that it was a key strategic asset for Rome not only in defeating Philip, but also for stabilizing Greece. To play this hand effectively, Athens not only mobilized its legendary propaganda skills, but also worked public feeling hard in its own streets to make Rome feel welcome, and to make Roman intervention feel natural and attractive at home. By playing this hand, Athens also provoked reprisals from Philip, the damage to Athens' physical heritage foreshadowing more extreme destruction a century later when the city would be caught between the insurgents of Mithridates and the renegade Roman forces of Sulla. The Athenian public became, as a result, even more ready to 'be Roman.' At the time, the intent of Athenian politicians to create a specially protected micro-empire for the city on the Greek mainland appeared achievable, but the Roman response, as so often, moved in unexpected directions, and pulled Athens inexorably into the future empire of Rome. Athens’ secondary intention: to become the default educator of the whole ruling culture in Rome’s next generations (it believed it was reaching this goal with the Hellenistic east) would require secondary tactics – including a demonstration using a staged lawsuit in Rome. This study intends to examine the earliest stages of the piecemeal, and only partially intentional, first step of Romanizing in Athens – I addressed a later stage in my study of the Mithridatic hostage crisis on the Acropolis.

The Disintegration of Traditional Image: On Antigone’s Free Will and Action

In the great tragedy Antigone, for a long time, it seems that the study of female image, Antigone, is imprisoned in the Oedipus family and ancient Greek city-state, family ethics and city-state law, feminism and masculinity. However, based on deconstructionism, American scholar Judith Butler advocated breaking the binary opposition of gender category. In the paper, the image formula of Antigone is broken based on Butler’s revelation of the gender category and the construction of kinship, and combined with the “desire” doctrines of Jacques Lacan’s psychoanalytic ethics. It highlights Antigone’s free will and action, which is of great significance to clarify Antigone’s spirit of freedom and enrich her image.

Choice of slavery institutions in Ancient Greece: Athenian chattels and Spartan helots

AbstractThe ancient Greek city-states were slave societies, but the institutions of slavery differed across them. The slaves of democratic Athens were foreigners bought as chattels labouring in agriculture, craftsmanship, banking, mining, and domestic services and were often given some limited freedoms and extra pay. On the contrary, the helots, the slaves of oligarchic Sparta, were indigenous of the lands they cultivated for their masters and were treated harshly. The study offers an economic explanation of the different slavery systems. Modelling the slaveholder as a profit maximiser, it attributes the different systems to differences in the probabilities of the slaves running away or revolting, the dependence of output on effort-intensive or care-intensive production technology, which depends on the fertility of the soil and affects whether the slave is treated kindly instead of harshly, and the cost of guarding slaves under different regimes.

No, the World is not Destined for War

War is not a destiny; it is a human creation, a failure of politics, economics, diplomacy, and security policy. International Relations (IR) is the study of great power relations and how they affect the world. Understanding and conduct of contemporary IR based on old assumptions can be as erroneous and risky as concluding the inevitability of war between two 21st Century great powers based on what a scholar reminds us of the "Thucydides' Trap", history of two warring Greek city-states because they could not accommodate each other's national interests. What is Graham Ellison of Harvard's Kennedy School, arguably one of the greatest global institutions of higher learning and powerhouses of ideas, trying to convey by characterizing 21st Century America-China relations by 5th Century BC Greek city-states? Do scholars and practitioners of IR realize the irony?

No, America and China are not “Destined For War.”

War is not a destiny, it is a human choice, failure of politics, economics, diplomacy, andsecurity policy. International Relations (IR) is the study of great power relations and how they affectthe world. Understanding and conduct of contemporary IR based on old assumptions can be aserroneous and risky as concluding the inevitability of war between two 21st Century great powersbased on what scholar Graham Allison reminds us of the "Thucydides' Trap" , history of two Greekcity states which went to war because they could not accommodate each other's national interests.What is Allison of Harvard's Kennedy School, arguably one of the greatest global institutionsof higher learning and powerhouses of ideas, trying to convey by characterizing 21st CenturyAmerica-China relations by 5th Century BC Greek city states?

The Paradox of Democracy: Free Speech, Open Media, and Perilous Persuasion by Zac Gershberg and Sean Illing

Reviewed by: The Paradox of Democracy: Free Speech, Open Media, and Perilous Persuasion by Zac Gershberg and Sean Illing Ray Brescia (bio) The Paradox of Democracy: Free Speech, Open Media, and Perilous Persuasion By Zac Gershberg and Sean Illing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2022. Pp. 320. In The Paradox of Democracy, authors Zac Gershberg and Sean Illing do yeoman's work in reviewing the history of Western democracies, from the Greek city-states of the time of Socrates to the United States of today, to make the claim that it is democracy's very openness that can lead to its ultimate demise. Demagogues can exploit the ability to communicate freely to garner support from the masses for very illiberal, antidemocratic ends. The authors point out that today's instantaneous, disintermediated media environment only makes the impact of media on culture even more profound. When the "paradox" of democracy—that it contains the seeds of its own destruction—meets the power of new media, the authors argue that a nation can find itself on the road to fascism. The solutions to this problem, the authors posit, are increased media literacy and a return to local journalism. When reading The Paradox of Democracy, it is not clear that the sources of the threats to democracy—and the defenses or solutions to those threats—are as simple as the authors suggest, however. What is more, the examples given by the authors do not always provide clear support for their arguments. One chapter-spanning discussion begins with Alexis de Tocqueville, goes through the Spanish-American War, doubles back to the Franco-Prussian War, fast-forwards to the Dreyfus Affair in France, follows up with the tension between Germany under the Kaiser and Russia under the Czar in the lead-up to World War I, and then discusses the rise of Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany. Do these examples support their analysis regarding the relationship between mass media and democracy when each of these nations had very different political systems, approaches to free speech, and wildly divergent outcomes? What, then, can we learn from these examples? How do they relate to the paradox of democracy? Similarly, the book rarely explores the fact that exogenous forces operating on and the relative strength of institutions within a society can both change a nation just as much, if not more, than mass media operating within it. Yes, the authors mention the American response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, make passing reference to the economic impacts of the Great Depression on politics generally, and discuss the failure of the January 6, 2021, insurrection in the United States, but little effort is made to identify the conditions and forces at work that result in the success or failure of illiberal demagogues in different institutional, economic, and political environments. Sometimes institutions hold, sometimes they do not. Sometimes antidemocratic forces leverage mass media to demolish democracy, sometimes they fail in their attempts to do so. We are given few tools to understand the difference between success and failure in such efforts. [End Page 601] The authors, choosing to see these phenomena through the prism of media analysis almost exclusively, might bring to mind the parable of the blind philosophers standing around an elephant, trying to identify what it is that stands before them. One, holding the trunk, concludes that it is a snake; another, touching its flank, thinks it is a wall; and so on. Here, our authors, media theorists themselves, analyze the impact of media tools on communication, culture, and politics and see what they have chosen to see given the lens through which they view these phenomena, which is well and good, standing on its own. But they also draw broader conclusions about the impact of those tools without recognizing that other factors are equally as important, if not more important, than the tools of communication in determining a society's future. The authors' efforts to help us understand the role that media can play in the potential fate of democracy and democracies are useful and remind us of the dangers present in this fraught political moment. But the limited nature and reach of...

СТИЛЬ І СМАК ЕПОХИ: МЕНЮ ЯК ДЖЕРЕЛО ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ ГАСТРОНОМІЧНИХ ПРАКТИК ТА ВІЗУАЛЬНОЇ КУЛЬТУРИ ДОВГОГО ДЕВ’ЯТНАДЦЯТОГО СТОЛІТТЯ

The investigation into the development of plots within the realm of artistic expression remains an enduringly pertinent subject. The distinctive backdrop of Ancient Greece offers a unique perspective for elucidating this evolutionary process, particularly through the medium of vase painting. The author specifically aimed at tracing the progression of a specific narrative type, centred around the depiction of the afterlife realm of Hades. This study also encompasses broader implications that can be inferred from the chronological evolution of this thematic construct. The intellectual landscape of the Greeks underwent a noticeable phase of desacralisation, characterised by a palpable shift in attitude. Narratives and figures that once commanded reverence started to be portrayed with reduced deference. The transformation of depictions related to Hades, spanning from the archaic to the classical period, is substantial. This transformation includes not only the iconography of Hades himself but also extends to his surrounding environment and accompanying characters. The very configuration of the underworld underwent a metamorphosis, and the personas within it underwent alterations. This process of desacralisation is not confined to vase painting alone; it extends into literature, a facet that will be detailed further. Significant changes in eschatological concepts find explicit expression in the works of notable contemporaries such as Plato, Euripides, Aristotle, and others. The evolution is particularly evident in relation to mythologies, with a noticeable surge in scepticism and critical scrutiny directed towards previously venerated myths. This critical perspective on myths was a relatively novel phenomenon in the literary domain until a certain epoch. Moreover, an exploration of the evolution of myths and the fluctuating popularity of specific narratives offers a lens through which to gauge the prevailing sentiments among the citizens of Greek city-states. Through a comprehensive analysis of diverse sources, the author endeavours to draw new conclusions and formulate fresh hypotheses.

СЕКУЛЯРИЗАЦІЯ ОБРАЗУ АЇДА ТА ПІДЗЕМНОГО ЦАРСТВА У СТАРОДАВНІЙ ГРЕЦІЇ НА ПРИКЛАДІ ВАЗОПИСУ

The investigation into the development of plots within the realm of artistic expression remains an enduringly pertinent subject. The distinctive backdrop of Ancient Greece offers a unique perspective for elucidating this evolutionary process, particularly through the medium of vase painting. The author specifically aimed at tracing the progression of a specific narrative type, centred around the depiction of the afterlife realm of Hades. This study also encompasses broader implications that can be inferred from the chronological evolution of this thematic construct. The intellectual landscape of the Greeks underwent a noticeable phase of desacralisation, characterised by a palpable shift in attitude. Narratives and figures that once commanded reverence started to be portrayed with reduced deference. The transformation of depictions related to Hades, spanning from the archaic to the classical period, is substantial. This transformation includes not only the iconography of Hades himself but also extends to his surrounding environment and accompanying characters. The very configuration of the underworld underwent a metamorphosis, and the personas within it underwent alterations. This process of desacralisation is not confined to vase painting alone; it extends into literature, a facet that will be detailed further. Significant changes in eschatological concepts find explicit expression in the works of notable contemporaries such as Plato, Euripides, Aristotle, and others. The evolution is particularly evident in relation to mythologies, with a noticeable surge in scepticism and critical scrutiny directed towards previously venerated myths. This critical perspective on myths was a relatively novel phenomenon in the literary domain until a certain epoch. Moreover, an exploration of the evolution of myths and the fluctuating popularity of specific narratives offers a lens through which to gauge the prevailing sentiments among the citizens of Greek city-states.

Обсуждение различных аспектов эротической этногеографии греческих городов-государств

The work provides a brief description of the content and a critical analysis of the main provisions of the monograph by an American researcher Kate Gilhuly: Erotic Geographies in Ancient Greek Literature and Culture. London; New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2018. Рр. VI, 150. ISBN 978-1-138-74176-8.

Delphi, war and the question of arbitration (500–400 BCE)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the Delphic oracle and arbitrations; Delphi’s impact on peace and conflict during the First and Second Peloponnesian Wars (460–445 BCE, and 432–404 BCE) in the Hellenistic world. And accordingly, this study shows how Delphi benefited from a state of constant warfare in slave trading, and how patterns in its behavior suggest that the Delphic oracle was governed by a slave producing system.In the field of International Relations, the oracle at Delphi is remembered as an early instance of institutionalized arbitration in inter-state affairs during a period in which the external relations of the Greek city-states are regarded as the manifestation of anarchy and diplomacy. However, neither realist nor constructivist accounts are able to explain the changing role of the Delphic oracle and the historical characteristics of change in arbitrations and diplomacy. The present article uses historical sociological analysis to throw new light on the actual role of the oracle and diplomacy in the ancient Greek world.Using primary sources, including the writings of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, and Plutarch, the present study questions whether Delphi acted as an arbitrator or whether arbitrations occurred in ending the war. The study is not aimed at including an exhaustive record of the Peloponnesian Wars.This paper helps fill the gap in the discussion of the transformation of Delphi’s connection with slavery and its universal impact on security issues.