Greater Training Load Research Articles

Part I: Relationship among Training Load Management, Salivary Immunoglobulin A, and Upper Respiratory Tract Infection in Team Sport: A Systematic Review.

Immunoglobulin A (IgA), which is the first line of defense against upper respiratory tract viruses, has been related with training load management. This article aimed to systematically identify and summarize (1) the studies that have found a relationship between training load and salivary IgA in team sports, and (2) the studies that have highlighted a relationship between IgA and upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) in team sports. A systematic review of relevant articles was carried out using two electronic databases (PubMed and WoK) until 3 October 2020. From a total of 174 studies initially found, 24 were included in the qualitative synthesis. This systematic review confirmed that lower values of IgA occurred after greater training load (intensity/volume) and congested periods. In this scenario, a low level of IgA was correlated with higher URTI, which makes training load management mandatory to healthcare avoiding immunosuppression. Therefore, physical fitness and conditioning coaches should carefully manage training load progression, avoiding high-intensity sessions in two consecutive days. In addition, they should not program high-intensity training sessions during at least the two days following competition.

The Training-Performance Puzzle: How Can the Past Inform Future Training Directions?

Over the past 20 years, research on the training-load-injury relationship has grown exponentially. With the benefit of more data, our understanding of the training-performance puzzle has improved. What were we thinking 20 years ago, and how has our thinking changed over time? Although early investigators attributed overuse injuries to excessive training loads, it has become clear that rapid spikes in training load, above what an athlete is accustomed, explain (at least in part) a large proportion of injuries. In this respect, it appears that overuse injuries may arise from athletes being underprepared for the load they are about to perform. However, a question of interest to both athletic trainers (ATs) and researchers is why some athletes sustain injury at low training loads, while others can tolerate much greater training loads? A higher chronic training load and well-developed aerobic fitness and lower body strength appear to moderate the training-injury relationship and provide a protective effect against spikes in load. The training-performance puzzle is complex and dynamic-at any given time, multiple inputs to injury and performance exist. The challenge facing researchers is obtaining large enough longitudinal data sets to capture the time-varying nature of physiological and musculoskeletal capacities and training-load data to adequately inform injury-prevention efforts. The training-performance puzzle can be solved, but it will take collaboration between researchers and clinicians as well as an understanding that efficacy (ie, how training load affects performance and injury in an idealized or controlled setting) does not equate to effectiveness (ie, how training load affects performance and injury in the real-world setting, where many variables cannot be controlled).

A new outlook on the evaluation of health state and physical capacity of skiers with disabilities as exemplified by a female Paralympic Champion

AbstractIntroduction: Initially, sport for the disabled (including skiing) was only considered to be a follow-up to rehabilitation. Modifications concerning the rules and classifications of athletes (reducing the number of classes) led to increased competition and to the fact that winning started to be determined more by physical performance features than by a type of dysfunction. This required more regular training and greater training loads as well as observing health state and training effectiveness more carefully. The aim of the work is to present the methodology of assessing health state of the athletes and the level of their physical capacity and to discuss the results of the research conducted on a female skier during the period of her greatest achievements. Materials and methods: The research group consisted of cross-country skiers with motor disabilities who were preparing for Paralympic Games in the years 2002-2010. A regular complex model of assessing health was implemented. It consisted of medical examinations and a physical capacity test (to failure) during which selected physiological and metabolic indices as well as the amount of work and mean power were marked. Results: Health assessment consisted of the report confirming that the athlete is capable of taking part in training sessions and competitions. The results of a physical capacity test, i.e. duration of work, peak power and power at the anaerobic threshold as well as heart reactions show the moment when the subject demonstrated the highest level of physical capacity in the course of the observation. Conclusions: A regular observation makes it possible to prevent negative health consequences of increased training loads and to monitor the reactions of the subjects’ bodies to the tasks in particular periods of the preparation cycle. Sports achievements of the female athlete confirm the effectiveness of the training and observation, while her features may serve as an example of morpho-functional posture which enabled her to compete for the title of the Paralympic Champion in cross-country skiing.

Comparison of impact forces, accelerations and ankle range of motion in surfing-related landing tasks

ABSTRACTThis study aimed to describe the impact forces, accelerations and ankle range of motion in five different landing tasks that are used in training and testing for competitive surfing athletes, to assist coaches in the prescription of landing task progression and monitoring training load. Eleven competitive surfing athletes aged 24 ± 7 years participated, and inertial motion sensors were fixed to the anterior aspect of the feet, mid-tibial shafts, sacrum and eighth thoracic vertebrae on these athletes. Three tasks were performed landing on force plates and two tasks in a modified gymnastics set-up used for land-based aerial training. Peak landing force, resultant peak acceleration and front and rear side ankle dorsiflexion ranges of motion during landing were determined. The peak acceleration was approximately 50% higher when performing aerial training using a mini-trampoline and landing on a soft-density foam board, compared to a similar landing off a 50 cm box. Furthermore, the ankle ranges of motion during the gymnastic type landings were significantly lower than the other landing types (P ≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.001), for front and rear sides, respectively. Conclusively, increased task complexity and specificity of the sport increased the tibial peak acceleration, indicating greater training load.

Water Immersion Recovery for Athletes: Effect on Exercise Performance and Practical Recommendations

Water immersion is increasingly being used by elite athletes seeking to minimize fatigue and accelerate post-exercise recovery. Accelerated short-term (hours to days) recovery may improve competition performance, allow greater training loads or enhance the effect of a given training load. However, the optimal water immersion protocols to assist short-term recovery of performance still remain unclear. This article will review the water immersion recovery protocols investigated in the literature, their effects on performance recovery, briefly outline the potential mechanisms involved and provide practical recommendations for their use by athletes. For the purposes of this review, water immersion has been divided into four techniques according to water temperature: cold water immersion (CWI; ≤20°C), hot water immersion (HWI; ≥36°C), contrast water therapy (CWT; alternating CWI and HWI) and thermoneutral water immersion (TWI; >20 to <36°C). Numerous articles have reported that CWI can enhance recovery of performance in a variety of sports, with immersion in 10-15°C water for 5-15min duration appearing to be most effective at accelerating performance recovery. However, the optimal CWI duration may depend on the water temperature, and the time between CWI and the subsequent exercise bout appears to influence the effect on performance. The few studies examining the effect of post-exercise HWI on subsequent performance have reported conflicting findings; therefore the effect of HWI on performance recovery is unclear. CWT is most likely to enhance performance recovery when equal time is spent in hot and cold water, individual immersion durations are short (~1min) and the total immersion duration is up to approximately 15min. A dose-response relationship between CWT duration and recovery of exercise performance is unlikely to exist. Some articles that have reported CWT to not enhance performance recovery have had methodological issues, such as failing to detect a decrease in performance in control trials, not performing full-body immersion, or using hot showers instead of pools. TWI has been investigated as both a control to determine the effect of water temperature on performance recovery, and as an intervention itself. However, due to conflicting findings it is uncertain whether TWI improves recovery of subsequent exercise performance. Both CWI and CWT appear likely to assist recovery of exercise performance more than HWI and TWI; however, it is unclear which technique is most effective. While the literature on the use of water immersion for recovery of exercise performance is increasing, further research is required to obtain a more complete understanding of the effects on performance.

Psychobiologic effects of 3 d of increased training in female and male swimmers

Eighteen female and 22 male college swimmers completed a paced 182.9 m swim before and after a 72 h period of increased training. Training volume was increased from 6,800 to 11,200 m.d-1 for the females and from 8,800 to 12,950 m.d-1 for the males. Salivary cortisol, heart rate, stroke mechanics, as well as overall and local ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured in conjunction with the two swim tests. Mood states, as measured by the Profile of Mood States, and ratings of perceived muscle soreness were assessed daily. Significant (P less than 0.005) elevations in stroke frequency, overall and local RPE, fatigue, overall mood, and muscle soreness levels occurred in association with the increased training. Significant (P less than 0.005) reductions in vigor and stroke length were also observed as a consequence of the greater training load. The main effects for gender and the gender by trial interactions were not significant for each variable tested. It was concluded that: 1) affective, biomechanical, and perceptual variables are sensitive to a 3 d increase in the volume of swim training, 2) heart rate and cortisol levels are not influenced by the type of increased training employed in this study, and 3) female and male college swimmers do not differ in their psychological or physiological responses to a rapid increase in training volume.