Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area Research Articles

Working from home 22 months on from the beginning of COVID-19: What have we learned for the future provision of transport services?

COVID-19 has delivered an unintended positive consequence through working from home (WFH). While it may be some time until we are able to indicate, with some confidence, the impact that WFH will have on traffic congestion and crowding on public transport, there is a sense already that it is a game changer, and indeed is one of the most effective policy levers that the transport sector has had for many years in ‘managing’ the performance of the transport network. This paper draws on multiple ways of survey data that have been collected since March 2020 when the pandemic first resulted in severe restrictions in Australia. We present the evidence up to December 2021 on the incidence of WFH in two geographical jurisdiction – the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area (GSMA) and South-East Queensland (SEQ) - and how it has been received by employees and employers from the height of restrictions up to a period when restrictions were relaxed, followed by further lockdowns throughout Australia. We show what this might mean for work productivity, lifestyle, and the changing preferences for passenger modes. With a growing preference, within some occupation classes, to WFH 1–2 days a week, and a good spread through the weekdays, we discuss what this means for the way we analyse the impact of transport initiatives on the performance of the transport network with a particular emphasis on the growth in suburbanisation of transport improvements, less costly service and infrastructure improvements, and the changing role of public transport.

Landholder perceptions of biodiversity offsetting rights and responsibilities: implications for policy reform in New South Wales, Australia

ABSTRACT We address the problem of landholder participation in biodiversity offsetting, a policy tool based on principles of market-based incentives. Our study focuses on the working rules of offsetting, specifically the rights and responsibilities of landholders. Our case study is an application of biodiversity offsetting in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan area, New South Wales, Australia. We conduct empirical analysis of landholders’ perceptions of their rights and responsibilities and subsequently apply an institutionalist perspective to infer implications for public policy reform. We find that landholders’ perceptions of their rights and responsibility with regard to i) providing offsets, ii) receiving money for doing so, iii) land management, and iv) transferring the land, elicit diverse reasons for (non)participation in biodiversity offsets in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan area. Some landholders consider themselves in alignment with the current working rules of the scheme, others do not. We reflect on these findings by abductively inferring reasons for institutional reform. The broader significance of our study resides in its potential to inform institutional design in jurisdictions where established schemes are under review, or may become subject to review.

Combined synoptic and regional weather patterns affecting atmospheric Poaceae pollen concentrations in Sydney, Australia

Inhalation of grass pollen can result in acute exacerbation of asthma, prompting questions about how grass pollen reaches metropolitan areas. We establish typical atmospheric Poaceae (grass) pollen concentrations recorded at two pollen samplers within the Sydney basin in eastern Australia and analyse their correlation with each other and meteorological variables. We determine the effect of synoptic and regional airflow on Poaceae pollen transport during a period of extreme (≥ 100 grains m−3 air) concentration and characterise the meteorology. Finally, we tested the hypothesis that most Poaceae pollen captured by the pollen samplers originated from local sources. Fifteen months of daily pollen data, three days of hourly atmospheric Poaceae pollen concentrations and fifteen months of hourly meteorology from two locations within the Sydney basin were used. Weather Research Forecasting (WRF), Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) modelling and conditional bivariate probability functions (CBPF) were used to assess Poaceae pollen transport. Most Poaceae pollen collected was estimated to be from local sources under low wind speeds. Extreme daily Poaceae pollen concentrations were rare, and there was no strong evidence to support long-distance Poaceae pollen transport into the Sydney basin or across the greater Sydney metropolitan area. Daily average pollen concentrations mask sudden increases in atmospheric Poaceae pollen, which may put a significant and sudden strain on the healthcare system. Mapping of Poaceae pollen sources within Sydney and accurate prediction of pollen concentrations are the first steps to an advanced warning system necessary to pre-empt the healthcare resources needed during pollen season.

Attitudes toward public transport post Delta COVID-19 lockdowns: Identifying user segments and policies to restore confidence

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the propensity to use public transport, with many countries seeing a decline in patronage to as low as 20% of the pre-pandemic levels. Although public transport use is recovering with 60% of pre-COVID-19 levels being a common statistic, there is a view that it could take many years to fully recover, if at all. This paper presents evidence on societal perceptions and attitudes about the use and return to public transport that was obtained from surveys undertaken during COVID-19 at a period in early 2021 in which there were no lockdowns, and during a subsequent period of varying durations of lockdowns in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area and South East Queensland. Together with views on future plans, this paper offers policy useful evidence on the challenges that the public transport sector currently faces, and is likely to continue to face, in developing a plan to support a return to using the more sustainable mode of public transport, rather than increased use of the private car. The focus of the paper is on an analysis of attitudinal and open-ended qualitative responses using a mixture of descriptive interpretation and analytical methods of factor and cluster analysis to identify the spectrum of attitudes and concerns about using public transport as a way of guiding future messaging.

What does the quantum of working from home do to the value of commuting time used in transport appraisal?

The need to recognise and account for the influence of working from home on commuting activity has never been so real as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Given a recognition that WFH activity during the pandemic has reduced the amount of commuting activity compared to pre-COVID-19, the inevitable question is raised as to what this might mean for some of the crucial inputs in the appraisal of transport initiatives. One critical value used in benefit-cost analysis is the value of time which converts time into monetary units in the calculation of user benefits. We are interested in whether reduced commuting activity is associated with higher or lower willing to pay to save time. We investigate this possibility with data from the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area in late 2020 when working from home was at a high level. The findings of a higher average commuter VoT have major implications for the VoT used in transport appraisal given that time savings are the largest user benefit. We suggest a percentage adjustment required to align with the ‘new normal’ as currently known.

Battery electric vehicles in cities: Measurement of some impacts on traffic and government revenue recovery

We are told that electric vehicles, cars in particular, will be good for the environment. But what exactly might this mean? It is true that end use emissions will be significantly reduced when we move from fossil fuels to green energy sources? Assuming that the demand for such cars, including battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in particular will grow, we can expect a significant number of such vehicles manufactured in future years. Given the potentially relatively lower cost (fewer moving parts) compared to internal combustion engine vehicles as well as the significantly lower usage costs per kilometre, we would expect a level of uptake that could impact on the performance of the road network (perhaps increased congestion and crash risk) but also a concomitant reduced use of public transport and fuel excise loss. In this paper, we apply the MetroScan modelling system in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area (GSMA) over the period 2021–2056 to identify the likely impact that the growth in BEV ownership and use will have on vehicle kilometres, modal shares, government revenues, levels of CO2 emissions and other impacts. Moreover, we investigate the introduction of a BEV usage charge proposed in Australia to see what it might do to these key performance indicators and whether it can offset the adverse effects during BEV uptake such as government fuel excise revenue loss and increased congestion.

Spatial Characteristics of Precipitation in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area as Revealed by the Daily Precipitation Concentration Index

In this study; the spatial distribution of the Daily Precipitation Concentration Index (DPCI) has been analyzed inside the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area (GSMA). Accordingly, the rainfall database from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology archive was utilized after comprehensive quality control. The compiled data contains a set of 41 rainfall stations indicating consistent daily precipitation series from 1950 to 2015. In the analysis of the DPCI across GSMA the techniques of Moran’s Spatial Autocorrelation has been applied. In addition, a cross-covariance method was applied to assess the spatial interdependency between vector-based datasets after performing an Ordinary Kriging interpolation. The results identify four well-recognized intense rainfall development zones: the south coast and topographic areas of the Illawarra district characterized by Tasman Sea coastal regions with DPCI values ranging from 0.61 to 0.63, the western highlands of the Blue Mountains, with values between 0.60 and 0.62, the inland regions, with lowest rainfall concentrations between 0.55 and 0.59, and lastly the districts located inside the GSMA with DPCI ranging 0.60 to 0.61. Such spatial distribution has revealed the rainstorm and severe thunderstorm activity in the area. This study applies the present models to identify the nature and mechanisms underlying the distribution of torrential rains over space within the metropolis of Sydney, and to monitor any changes in the spatial pattern under the warming climate.

Understanding business location decision making for transport planning: An investigation of the role of process rules in identifying influences on firm location

Decisions made by businesses on where to locate or relocate are typically given less consideration in integrated transport and land use modelling systems than residential location. This is surprising given the important role that businesses play in defining employment opportunities, and hence the travel patterns of workers and any travel associated with accessing firms. This paper studies business location decisions in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area (GSMA) through two types of models. The first one, referred to as an attribute-non-attendance (ANA) model, is used to identify the influences on location decisions that are attended to and those that are typically ignored. The second model is a mixed multinomial logit model with ANA to capture differences in preferences as a way of investigating the key drivers of business location. The findings suggest that the main drivers vary across the GSMA, making specific locations an important determinant of choice, with businesses located in Sydney being especially concerned about access to public transport and the distance of other locations to the current location; businesses located in Wollongong placing great importance on client accessibility; and businesses located in Newcastle being very sensitive to the distance to their current location. Simulated scenarios are presented in this study to illustrate the degree of behavioural responsiveness to changes in important attributes such as accessibility, location and office characteristics.

The impact of COVID-19 on cost outlays for car and public transport commuting - The case of the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area after three months of restrictions

This paper estimates the short-term reduction in money and time costs associated with a reduction in car and public transport commuting activity in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area (GSMA) during a period of the COVID-19 pandemic in which Australia started to see an easing of restrictions (see Beck and Hensher 2020a). As of late May 2020, three months after COVID-19 resulted in restrictions in Australia, we saw an annual travel time reduction for car and public transport commuters in the GSMA of $5.58 billion, representing a 54.02% reduction in the Pre-COVID-19 total time costs, much of which we would suggest can be associated with reductions in congestions costs. Adjusting further for reduced employment volumes relative to pre-COVID-19 levels, to take into account reduced commuting activity due, in part, to a lower volume of work associated with a loss of employment or lower employment hours, the annual time cost reduction for all commuters who still have regular pre-COVID-19 levels of employment are estimated as $4.4 billion. Hence there is $1.17 billion worth of reduced time costs associated with significantly reduced employment hours, including a loss of employment. The implications for road investment linked to congestion in particular is profound, and shows how much of an increase in benefit to society, through congestion busting, can be obtained by more flexible work arrangements, even allowing for some switching into car out of public transport. Whether the current decrease in travel costs will be long-lasting is unknown, but it does support the appeal of working from home, if it is sustainable, as a policy lever to reduce levels of congestion on the roads and crowding in public transport.

Integrated primary care insomnia management in Australia.

There is growing support to expand the roles of pharmacists by recognizing their knowledge and skills beyond those around dispensing of medications. Introducing non-dispensing pharmacists at the premises of General Practitioners (GPs) for a collaborative service can potentially and significantly help to provide more effective and efficient health services, for example, in under-recognized or mismanaged conditions such as insomnia. Such a collaborative service could also reduce the costs and risks associated with long-term use of sedatives, besides improving patient's quality of life. This study aimed to elicit the perceptions of Australian GPs on the integration of pharmacists into general practice settings for providing sleep health services, especially insomnia services. Face to face interviews were conducted with a purposive convenience sample of GPs using a semi-structured interview guide. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and the transcribed data were thematically analyzed using the principles of framework analysis to identify emergent themes. Twenty-four interviews (46% female participants) were conducted with GPs from greater Sydney Metropolitan area in New South Wales. Based on the Collaborative Working Relationship (CWR) framework, the current relationship between the participating GPs and pharmacists appeared to be at the early stage. Thematic analysis of the interviews indicated that despite citing some barriers such as funding models, infrastructure and perceived patient attitudes, most participants expressed a positive attitude towards this service model. The integrated insomnia service model was believed to be facilitating the provision of comprehensive care for patients with insomnia. The results of this study suggest that there is a willingness among GPs to utilize pharmacist support in insomnia management. Various facilitators, barriers, and methods of collaborative services were identified. A professional practice framework needs to be developed and established to implement the proposed model and ensure a better healthcare service for patients with insomnia.

Insomnia Management in the Australian Primary Care Setting

ABSTRACTBackground and Objective: Insomnia is one of the most prevalent and costly sleep disorders presenting in general practice, and when left untreated, has major health consequences. However, studies are limited on how general practitioners respond to this health issue, especially since the reconceptualization of insomnia in DSM 5. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore how insomnia is diagnosed and treated in Australian general practices. Participants: Twenty-four (54% male) general practitioners were recruited throughout the greater Sydney metropolitan area in New South Wales using the professional network of research team members and snowballing technique. Methods: Participants were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. The audio-taped interviews were transcribed verbatim and a framework approach was used for analysis of transcribed data. Results: Participant’s responses highlighted that despite being a frequent presentation, insomnia is often trivialized with a low recognition rate in general practices. Lack of support and clear and effective management guidelines for general practitioners are the perceived barriers to early recognition of insomnia in general practices. Treating the underlying causes and initiating the treatment with general practitioners to manage insomnia. Medications including off-label antidepressants are often prescribed based on perceived patient expectation for a prescription. Conclusion: Findings of this exploratory study suggest the need for clearly contextualized guidelines that include information about a patient’s insomnia experience and treatment expectations. Another significant implication of this study is the need to develop and evaluate a model of collaborative sleep health services in general practice.

Do coaches perceive themselves as influential on physical activity for girls in organised youth sport?

Participation in organised youth sports (OYS) has been recommended as an opportunity to increase young peoples' physical activity (PA) levels. While coaches can potentially influence athletes' PA levels, what has not been explored is the question; do coaches perceive themselves as influential on PA for girls in OYS? Participants were 30 coaches of girls OYS teams aged 9–17 years in the Greater Sydney Metropolitan Area, Australia. Participants took part in a semi-structured interview that lasted approximately 30 minutes. They responded to questions regarding their perceived role as coaches, their perceptions of themselves as role models for PA, their views on their athletes' current PA levels, their opinions on improving their athletes' PA levels, and their perceived challenges as coaches in OYS. Many coaches considered themselves role models for PA due to their own involvement in organised sports. Coaches felt that they were conscious of girls' PA levels during training and could accurately gauge how active girls were. Coaches perceived their training sessions to provide sufficient PA and thus, did not feel the need to try to increase PA during training. Many coaches were cautious about conducting training sessions where the PA intensity was high for prolonged periods because they believed that it could potentially result in dropout from OYS. Coaches' perceived time commitment to OYS, variability of skill/experience amongst girls, and poor parental support as major challenges they experienced in OYS. This study provided a unique insight from the perspective of coaches in OYS. Most coaches felt that they had the potential to influence PA for girls in OYS; however, coaches may underestimate or not fully realise the impact they can have on the girls they coach. Future research should focus on educating coaches to capitalise on the opportunity they have to promote PA through OYS.

Two-year outcomes from the NEAT Girls obesity prevention cluster randomized controlled trial

Introduction: Participation in organised youth sports (OYS) has been recommended as an opportunity to increase young peoples’ physical activity (PA) levels. This is particularly pertinent for girls in adolescence, when PA declines sharply. While coaches can potentially influence PA levels of athletes, little research has explored coaches’ perceptions of themselves as PA promoters for their athletes. Methods: Participantswere30OYScoaches frombasketball, soccer, or netball teams of girls aged 9–17 years in the Greater Sydney metropolitanarea,Australia. Coacheswere19malesand11 females aged 18–69 years (mean=42.2±13.2 years) and had an average of 13.3±11.8 years of coaching experience. Participants took part in a semi-structured interview that lasted approximately 30min. Participants responded to questions regarding their perceived roles as coaches, their perceptions of themselves as role models for PA promotion, and their perceived ability to impact their athletes’ PA levels. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Content analysis was conducted using an interpretational approach. Results: Participants described influential roles (i.e. teacher, mentor, and role model) when asked how they perceived their role as a coach. They also felt it was part of their role as a coach to promote a fun, friendly, and supportive team environment and provide sport-specific development (physical and tactical skills). Participants who perceived themselves as role models for PA promotion cited their current participation inorganised sport and their participation in the training sessions of the team(s) they coach as reasons why they felt they were role models. Conversely, participants who did not feel they were role models for PA promotion cited retirement from sport, health/injury reasons, and old age as reasons. Many participants indicated that they could not push girls as hard as boys in terms of PA levels, as they feared girls would drop out of OYS if they were to incorporate too much PA into their training sessions. Participants reported that their potential, as coaches, to impact their athletes’ long-term PA was limited, with many explaining that the athletes’ parents were more influential in that respect. Discussion: Coaches have the potential to promote PA for girls in OYS, however, findings from this study indicate that they may underestimate or may not fully realise the impact they can have on the girls they coach. Future research should focus on educating coaches to capitalise on the opportunity they have to promote girls’ PA in OYS.

Urban Renewal and Strata Scheme Termination: Balancing Communal Management and Individual Property Rights

A debate is taking place in Australia regarding potential changes to the legislation governing what proportion of owners must agree before apartment buildings can be redeveloped and whether a collective sale model should be adopted in order to facilitate urban renewal. To date, urban renewal has proven challenging because of difficulties of coordinating renewal within a planning system that relies on the market to deliver housing. This challenge is amplified by the governance framework created to promote multiunit housing—strata title—and associated tensions between communal management and individual property rights. This paper makes particular reference to the implications of this debate in the greater Sydney metropolitan area, which raises universal issues regarding tensions between the government and the market and between individual rights and the collective good. This paper argues that there is a case for changing the legislation, with government involvement required to respond to the significant social issues raised, to guarantee the needs of existing owners and tenants are met, and to ensure that high-quality, economically viable, buildings result.

Application of positive matrix factorization, multi-linear engine and back trajectory techniques to the quantification of coal-fired power station pollution in metropolitan Sydney

Over 900 fine particle Teflon filters were collected within the Sydney Basin between 1 January 2001 and 31 December 2011 and analyzed using simultaneous PIXE, PIGE, RBS and PESA techniques to determine 21 different elements between hydrogen and lead. These elements were used in positive matrix factorization (PMF) and multi-linear engine (ME) techniques together with HYSPLIT wind back trajectory techniques to quantitatively determine source fingerprints and their contributions from coal-fired power stations. The power stations were many kilometers outside the greater Sydney metropolitan area but still had a significant impact on the fine particle mass loadings measured at the sampling site within this metropolitan area. The PM2.5 eleven year average mass at the sampling site was 6.48 μg m−3. The corresponding ammonium sulfate estimate was 1.65 μg m−3 or 26% of the PM2.5 mass. By applying back trajectory data and (ME) analysis methods, two power related fingerprints, secondary sulfate (2ndrySPower) and aged industrial sulfur (IndSagedPower) were determined. These two power related fingerprints were responsible for between 14 and 18% of the total PM2.5 mass and 34–47% of the total sulfate measured at the sampling site. That is on average somewhere between a third and a half of all the sulfate measured in the greater Sydney region could be attributed to coal-fired power station emissions.

An investigation into the perceptions of radiographers in the Greater Sydney metropolitan area on performing intravenous contrast media administration

AbstractAim: To investigate the perceptions of radiographers in the Greater Sydney metropolitan area concerning the performance of intravenous contrast media injections by radiographers. Methods: 90 radiographers (corresponds to a 40.9% return) from five randomly selected private radiology practices and five randomly selected public hospitals within the Greater Sydney metropolitan area were surveyed. The survey was structured such that each section of the survey related to a specific objective of the study. This study focuses on training, departmental workflow and medico‐legal issues. Results: Radiographers from private practices were more in favour of performing intravenous contrast media administration, although the majority of the radiographers surveyed felt that it should be performed as part of their normal duties. They felt that it would greatly aid department workflow and patient throughput. However, there were concerns about the medico‐legal implications of this added responsibility. Conclusions: Most respondents were in favour of radiographers performing contrast media injections. Standardised and accredited training, including education on the medico‐legal coverage available to them, may be needed to allay their concerns and adequately prepare them to take on this extended role.

Preliminary modelling results of an urban air quality model verifying the prediction of nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and ozone over the Sydney basin

The air quality modelling system (HIRES-AIRCHEM) of The University of New South Wales is tested with regard to forecast distributions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3) over the Sydney basin and surrounding area. This is achieved by assimilating the emissions inventory of the New South Wales State Environment Protection Authority. This inventory contains both road and non-road sources. The HIRES-AIRCHEM system was run over the greater Sydney metropolitan area for a four day period in February 1998. During this period O3 readings, in particular, exceeded the EPA’s threshold maximum of 80 ppb. The model forecasts of the NO2-, SO2- and O3-distributions verify well with the EPA’s monitored readings. Diurnal concentrations are greatest in the late afternoon, as expected, when photochemical processes are most active. Furthermore, the forecast spatial distribution of NO2 and SO2 shows maximum values radiating out along major roads from the Sydney CBD and other population centres. This is consistent with NO2 and SO2 being major pollutants associated with vehicular traffic. These promising results have significant implications for possible future use of the system as a tool for routinely assessing air quality.

Whose space is it anyway? A study of young people's interaction with security guards in New South Wales

Limited research has been conducted in relation to the impact of private policing on young people. Research has primarily focused on young people and their use of public space, their use of the street or the policing of working class families and their children. This paper outlines an investigation of young peoples use of public spaces and their experiences of security guards within the greater Sydney metropolitan area of New South Wales. The paper also outlines the experiences of shopping centre managers in relation to the management of young people within their centres. The research found that young people are over policed within public spaces and especially in shopping complexes. Young people are primarily over policed within these spaces because of the perceived fears other groups within the community hold in relation to young people, especially those in groups.