Tragelaphus Strepsiceros Research Articles

Changes in Serum Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium Levels in Captive Ruminants Affected By Diet Manipulation

A combination of low serum calcium (Ca), high serum phosphorus (P), and low serum magnesium (Mg) has been observed in individual captive ruminants, primarily affecting kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), eland (Taurotragus oryx), nyala (Tragelaphus angasii), bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus), and giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). These mineral abnormalities have been associated with chronic laminitis, acute tetany, seizures, and death. Underlying rumen disease secondary to feeding highly fermentable carbohydrates was suspected to be contributing to the mineral deficiencies, and diet changes that decreased the amount of starch fed were implemented in 2003. Serum chemistry values from before and after the diet change were compared. The most notable improvement after the diet change was a decrease in mean serum P. Statistically significant decreases in mean serum P were observed for the kudu (102.1-66.4 ppm), eland (73.3-58.4 ppm), and bongo (92.1-64.2 ppm; P < 0.05). Although not statistically significant, mean serum P levels also decreased for nyala (99.3-86.8 ppm) and giraffe (82.6-68.7 ppm). Significant increases in mean serum Mg were also observed for kudu (15.9-17.9 ppm) and eland (17.1-19.7 ppm). A trend toward increased serum Mg was also observed in nyala, bongo, and giraffe after the diet change. No significant changes in mean serum Ca were observed in any of the five species evaluated, and Ca was within normal ranges for domestic ruminants. The mean Ca:P ratio increased to greater than one in every species after the diet change, with kudu, eland, and bongo showing a statistically significant change. The results of this study indicate that the diet change had a generally positive effect on serum P and Mg levels.

Determination of carnivores prey base by scat analysis in Samburu community group ranches in Kenya

This study determined the prey base for four main carnivores found in Samburu community group ranches and grazing area, Lion ( Panthera leo ), Leopard ( Panthera pardus ), Wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ) and Hyaena ( Crocuta crocuta , and Hyaena hyaena ). A total of 96 scat samples including, 8 from Lion, 16 Leopards’, 2 Wild dogs’, and 70 Hyaenas’ were collected, identified and microscopically analyzed for prey hair characterisation. At least 50 different hairs from every scat sample were mounted on slides and microscopically characterized using details from reference hairs. Hairs from 18 depredated species both domestic and wild ungulates were recovered from the scat samples. Predated species were identified, as either domestic (Cow, Sheep, Goat, Donkey, and Camel) or wild ungulate prey (Grant’s gazelle, plain Zebra, Grevy’s Zebra, Impala, Waterbuck, Dikdik, Eland, lesser Kudu, greater Kudu, Baboon, rock Hyraxes, Elephant and Oryx). The carnivores showed a relatively high kill of wild ungulate prey compared to domestic prey. Camel was the most preferred domestic animal by both the Lion and the leopard, while wild Dog and Hyaena preferred cow and donkey respectively. Grevy’s zebra contributed highest to the lion’s diet while the Plain zebra was most preferred by the leopard. Both the hyaena and the Wild dog had a preference for the waterbuck. The Hyaena had the highest domestic depredation, while all the other big cats depredated more on wild ungulates Key words: Scat, group ranch, domestic, wild ungulate, prey, depredation.

Influence of social upbringing on the activity pattern of captive lion Panthera leo cubs: Benefits of behavior enrichment

Abstract The influence of social upbringing on the activity pattern of lion Panthera leo cubs was investigated at three sites. In this study, stimulus objects such as sticks, grass, fresh dung (elephant Loxondota africana, zebra Equus quagga, impala Aepyceros melampus, duiker Sylvicapra grimmia, kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros, giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis and wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus) and cardboard boxes, were utilized in an enrichment program aimed at encouraging active behaviors of captive lion cubs at Antelope Park and Masuwe. Lion cubs at Chipangali were not behaviorally enriched. Activity patterns were recorded for 10 days at each site. We recorded moving, resting, playing, grooming, visual exploration and display of hunting instincts. We found that behavioral enrichment enhanced the active behaviors of captive lion cubs. Orphan-raised cubs spent more time moving, playing and displaying hunting instincts than mother-raised cubs, but the time spent grooming was similar across areas and suggests that grooming is not influenced by enrichment. Mother-raised cubs spent more time engaged in visual exploration than orphan-raised cubs and this could be a behavior acquired from mothers or a result of confidence to explore because of their presence. Activity patterns were different among time treatments across our three study sites. Based on these findings, we suggest that lion cubs raised in captivity could benefit from behavioral enrichment to encourage active behaviors essential for eventual reintroduction into the wild.

An investigation of the effects of secondary processing on Mycobacterium spp. in naturally infected game meat and organs

The risk for humans to contract bovine tuberculosis through the consumption of undercooked game meat as well as biltong (traditionally dried game meat) is a concern. The survival potential of Mycobacterium bovis during the cooking and drying processes was researched in a preceding study on beef and the positive results compelled the authors to investigate the results with a similar preliminary study on game meat. Muscular, lymphatic and visceral tissues from skin test positive African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) with tuberculous lesions were collected from the Hluhluwe iMfolozi Park during the park's culling programme. The different tissues were exposed to cooking and the muscular tissue to the drying process prior to culture. All acid-fast isolates were analysed by polymerase chain reaction for the presence of Mycobacterium bovis. All tissues were found negative for Mycobacterium bovis but non-tuberculous mycobacteria were isolated from kidney, liver, heart and lymph nodes. The results showed that these processes will kill Mycobacterium bovis but the unexpected recovery of non-tuberculous mycobacteria suggests possible survival and resistance characteristics of these strains which might be of veterinary public health interest.

Individual vigilance of African herbivores while drinking: the role of immediate predation risk and context

Perceived risk of predation is considered to influence individual prey vigilance, but little is known about the extent to which the context (e.g. distance to cover, group size) and the immediate presence of predators determine individual prey vigilance. We combined behavioural data on individual vigilance of herbivores at waterholes with fine-scale spatiotemporal data from 27 African lions, Panthera leo , fitted with GPS radiocollars to test whether individual prey vigilance increases when predators are in the vicinity and whether this relationship is influenced by group size and presence of other herbivores. The study was conducted on giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis , greater kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros , and plains zebra, Equus quagga , in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, between mid-September and mid-November 2008. Kudu was the only species to adjust its vigilance level significantly in the presence of lions, arguably owing to its higher contribution to lion diet in Hwange. Kudu devoted a significantly higher proportion of time to vigilance when lions were in the vicinity. Furthermore, the proportion of time spent on individual vigilance decreased as group size increased during the approach and drinking phases, particularly when lions were in the vicinity. Finally, the presence of other herbivores at the waterhole enabled kudu to spend less time vigilant while drinking. These adjustments involved changes in the length of vigilance bouts, but not in their frequency. Our study suggests that the interplay between the context (group size, presence of other prey) and the immediate presence of predators determines the level of vigilance in prey.

Trypanosoma brucei Infection in Asymptomatic Greater Kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) on a Game Ranch in Zambia

Trypomastogotes of Trypanosoma brucei were detected from 4 asymptomatic kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) on a game ranch located approximately 45 km north east of Lusaka, Zambia. Blood smears examined from 14 wildlife species comprising of the impala (Aepyceros melampus), Kafue lechwe (kobus leche kafuensis), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), puku (Kobus vardoni), zebra (Equus burchelli), waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), wilderbeest (Connochaetes taurinus), hartebeest (Alcephelus lichtensteini), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) showed that only the kudu had T. brucei. Although game ranching has emerged to be a successful ex-situ conservation strategy aimed at saving the declining wildlife population in the National Parks, our findings suggest that it has the potential of aiding the re-distribution of animal diseases. Hence, there is a need for augmenting wildlife conservation with disease control strategies aimed at reducing the risk of disease transmission between wildlife and domestic animals.

Prey selection and prey preferences of spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta in the Etosha National Park, Namibia

AbstractThe feeding ecology of the spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta was studied in the central and eastern part of the Etosha National Park, Namibia. Hyenas mainly hunted migratory ungulates such as springbok Antidorcas marsupialis, zebra Equus burchelli, and blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus, but also resident species such as the greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros and gemsbok Oryx gazella. There were, however, major differences in the species most frequently killed by hyenas in central and eastern Etosha. The preferred prey species of spotted hyenas in central Etosha was springbok, whereas regarding the abundance of zebra and wildebeest, these two species were rather avoided. In contrast, the prey species preferred by hyenas in eastern Etosha was kudu. Zebra and gemsbok were taken in proportion to their abundance, whereas wildebeest and springbok seemed to be rather avoided. Differences in prey selection and preferences were also reflected in differences in hunting group sizes. In eastern Etosha, where spotted hyenas frequently hunted larger prey, hunting group sizes were significantly larger compared to those in the center of the park.

A Comparison between the Effects of Day and Night Cropping on Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) Meat Quality

The greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) has become a popular ungulate species for game meat production and the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of day and night cropping on its meat quality. Eight animals were cropped during the day and eight at night. Day-cropped animals had higher mean behavioural scores (perceived amount of ante-mortem stress experienced) and Cortisol levels (behavioural score = 3.0 ± 0.641; Cortisol = 68 ± 1.28 nmol/l) than night-cropped animals (behavioural score = 1.8 ± 0.955; Cortisol = 14 ± 2.15 nmol/l). The muscle ultimate pH (pHu) values differed significantly between the two treatments (day-cropped animals = 5.40 ± 0.030; night-cropped = 5.48 ± 0.041). Significant differences were also found in drip loss (day-cropped = 2.76 ± 0.261%; night-cropped = 1.36 ± 0.361 %) and in shear force between treatments (day-cropped = 3.45 ± 0.171; night-cropped = 4.06 ± 0.237 kg/1.27 cm diameter). No differences were found between the treatments for any of the colour ordlnates, except L* values (day-cropped: 33.45 ± 0.435; night-cropped = 32.13 ± 0.601). The results of this study are Inconclusive in that although day-cropped animals experienced more ante-mortem stress and, as a result produced meat with higher drip loss, they had a lower shear force and a paler colour, which are positive meat quality attributes associated with less stress.

Meat quality of kudu ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and impala ( Aepyceros melampus): Carcass yield, physical quality and chemical composition of kudu and impala Longissimus dorsi muscle as affected by gender and age

The meat quality of kudu and impala was compared. Live weight and carcass weight differed between species, genders and age groups. Impala had the highest dressing percentage while kudu had the highest live weight and carcass weight. Kudu had the lowest fat content while female animals had a higher fat and myoglobin content than males. Sub-adults had a higher ash content than adults. Species, gender and age had no effect of pH, drip loss, cooking loss or tenderness although kudu had higher L∗, a∗, b∗ and chroma values than impala. Impala sub-adults had significantly higher insoluble collagen, soluble collagen, total collagen and hydroxyproline content than kudu sub-adults. Kudu had the highest potassium levels while impala had the highest phosphorus levels. Potassium, sodium, iron and copper levels also differed between species.

Meat quality of kudu ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and impala ( Aepyceros melampus): The effect of gender and age on the fatty acid profile, cholesterol content and sensory characteristics of kudu and impala meat

Game meat has distinct sensory characteristics and favourable fatty acid profiles which differ between species. The SFA’s percentage was found to be higher in impala meat (51.12%) than kudu meat (34.87%) whilst the total PUFA was higher in kudu (38.88%) than impala (34.06%). Stearic acid (22.67%) was the major fatty acid in impala and oleic acid in kudu (24.35). Linoleic acid, C20:3 n-6 and C22:6 n-3 were higher in kudu while C20:4 n-6, C20:5 n-3 and C22:5 n-3 were higher in impala. The PUFA:SFA ratio for kudu (1.22) was higher than for impala (0.73) while impala had a higher n-6 PUFA’s to n-3 PUFA ratio (3.76) than kudu (2.20). Kudu was higher in cholesterol (71.42 ± 2.61 mg/100 g muscle) than impala (52.54 ± 2.73 mg/100 g muscle). Sensory evaluation showed impala had a more intense game aroma and flavour while the initial juiciness of cooked samples of kudu was higher. The results show kudu and impala can be marketed for their unique flavours and aromas as well as being a healthy substitute for other red meats.

Validation of Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolite Assays for South African Herbivores

ABSTRACT Fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) assays are a popular means of monitoring adrenocortical activity (i.e., physiological stress response) in wildlife. Species‐specific differences in glucocorticoid metabolism and excretion require assay validation, including both laboratory and biological components, before assay use in new species. We validated a commercially available radioimmunoassay (MP 125I corticosterone RIA kit [MP Biomedicals, Solon, OH]) for measuring FGMs of several South African herbivores, including giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), impala (Aepyceros melampus), nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), and zebra (Equus burchelli). These herbivores are important in South African parks and reserves for ecotourism and as a prey base for predators and serve an integral role in ecosystem processes. Standard biochemical validations (e.g., recovery of exogenous corticosterone, intra‐ and interassay variation, and parallelism) demonstrated that the assay accurately and precisely measured FGMs of all 6 herbivore species. Our biological validations demonstrated that the assay was sensitive enough to detect changes in FGM production associated with season. Samples collected during the dry season (Jun‐Aug) contained higher FGM concentrations than those from the wet season (Dec‐Feb) in all species. We established optimal sample dilutions and reference FGM levels for these 6 herbivores, which can now be used to monitor the effects of management and ecotourism activities on the stress responses of these herbivores.

The diets of ungulates from the hominid fossil-bearing site of Elandsfontein, Western Cape, South Africa

The dietary regimes of 15 ungulate species from the middle Pleistocene levels of the hominid-bearing locality of Elandsfontein, South Africa, are investigated using the mesowear technique. Previous studies, using taxonomic analogy, classified twelve of the studied species as grazers ( Redunca arundinum, Hippotragus gigas, Hippotragus leucophaeus, Antidorcas recki, Homoiceras antiquus, Damaliscus aff. lunatus, Connochaetes gnou laticornutus, Rabaticerus arambourgi, Damaliscus niro, Damaliscus sp. nov., an unnamed “spiral horn” antelope and Equus capensis), one as a mixed feeder ( Taurotragus oryx) and two as browsers ( Tragelaphus strepsiceros and Raphicerus melanotis). Although results from mesowear analysis sustain previous dietary classifications in the majority of cases, five species were reclassified. Three species previously classified as grazers, were reclassified as mixed feeders ( H. gigas, D. aff. lunatus and R. arambourgi), one previously classified as a grazer, was reclassified as a browser (the “spiral horn” antelope), and one previously classified as a mixed feeder, was reclassified as a browser ( T. oryx). While current results broadly support previous reconstructions of the Elandsfontein middle Pleistocene environment as one which included a substantial C 3 grassy component, the reclassifications suggest that trees, broad-leaved bush and fynbos were probably more prominent than what was previously thought.

Temporal patterns of animal-related traffic accidents in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

This study analysed road accident data for a five-year period on a route between Uitenhage and Graaff-Reinet in the Eastern Cape (South Africa) to investigate the temporal patterns of animal-related accidents (ARAs). Although a large number of ARAs was recorded during the high-traffic holiday season, a distinct period of relatively high ARA rates was identified from April to July. These months coincide with the rutting and hunting seasons of greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) when movement is more pronounced. The observed daily danger times for ARAs are from dusk to around midnight and early mornings until dawn. Weekends, with increased motor vehicle traffic, are also hazardous times. These results should be used by traffic authorities and regional traffic managers to help initiate mitigating procedures and launch public awareness programmes to inform motorists of the most accident-prone times of the day, days of the week and seasons of the year for animal-related motor vehicle accidents.

Phylogenomic study of spiral-horned antelope by cross-species chromosome painting

Chromosomal homologies have been established between cattle (Bos taurus, 2n = 60) and eight species of spiral-horned antelope, Tribe Tragelaphini: Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii, 2n = 55male/56female), Lesser kudu (T. imberbis, 2n = 38male,female), Bongo (T. eurycerus, 2n = 33male/34female), Bushbuck (T. scriptus, 2n = 33male/34female), Greater kudu (T. strepsiceros, 2n = 31male/32female), Sitatunga (T. spekei, 2n = 30male,female) Derby eland (Taurotragus derbianus 2n = 31male/32female) and Common eland (T. oryx 2n = 31male/32female). Chromosomes involved in centric fusions in these species were identified using a complete set of cattle painting probes generated by laser microdissection. Our data support the monophyly of Tragelaphini and a clade comprising T. scriptus, T. spekei, T. euryceros and the eland species T. oryx and T. derbianus, findings that are largely in agreement with sequence-based molecular phylogenies. In contrast, our study suggests that the arid adaptiveness of T. oryx and T. derbianus is recent. Finally, we have identified the presence of the rob(1;29) fusion as an evolutionary marker in most of the tragelaphid species investigated. This rearrangement is associated with reproductive impairment in cattle and raises questions whether subtle distinctions in breakpoint location or differential rescue during meiosis underpin the different outcomes detected among these lineages.

Detection ofTrypanosoma bruceiin Field-Captured Tsetse Flies and Identification of Host Species Fed on by the Infected Flies

The prevalence of trypanosome infections in tsetse flies in the Chiawa area of Lower Zambezi in Zambia, with endemic trypanosomosis, was determined by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method that allowed the detection of trypanosome DNA and determination of the type of animal host fed on by the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes, using tsetse-derived DNA extracts as templates. Ninety G. pallidipes (82 females and 8 males; 18.3%) of the 492 flies captured by baited biconical traps tested positive for the presence of Trypanosoma brucei species genomic DNA. Of the 90 T. brucei-positive flies, 47 (52.2%) also tested positive for vertebrate mitochondrial DNA. Sequence analysis of the vertebrate mitochondrial DNA amplicons established that they originated from 8 different vertebrate species, namely, human (Homo sapiens), African elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), and goat (Capra hircus). Furthermore, to investigate the prevalence of trypanosome infections in domestic goats in the same area where trypanosomes had been detected in tsetse files, a total of 86 goats were randomly selected from 6 different herds. Among the selected goats, 36 (41.9%) were found to be positive for T. brucei species. This combined detection method would be an ideal approach not only for mass screening for infection prevalence in tsetse populations, but also for the prediction of natural reservoirs in areas endemic for trypanosomosis.

Spatial variation in trophy quality of popular hunted ungulate species in South Africa

A database of approximately 9000 trophy measurements of ungulates hunted in South Africa between 1993 and 2001 was analysed in order to detect species-specific,regional variation in mean trophy quality. Blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas), eland (Taurotragus oryx), impala (Aepyceros melampus), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) showed statistically significant variation in trophy quality. A number of other species including blue wildebeest (Connochaetus taurinus), black wildebeest (Connochaetus gnou), bushbuck (Tragelaphus angusticeps), common reedbuck (Redunca redunca), gemsbok (Oryx gazella), red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) and waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) were insignificant. The manipulation of trophy quality on ranches is speculated to be the major cause of these significant regional variations. It is recommended that species-specific baselines of trophy quality and associated levels of ‘acceptable manipulation’ be established and incorporated into a national trophy quality monitoring programme to provide some level of protection to an industry that contributes significantly to the South African economy.

Decline of large mammals in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of western Tanzania

In the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of western Tanzania, aerial censuses carried out between 1988 and 2002 show that populations of several large ungulate species had declined. Five competing factors that could be responsible for these changes were investigated. (i) Rainfall increased slightly over 25 years and (ii) no obvious outbreaks of disease were witnessed, suggesting that populations are not suffering food shortages or disease. (iii) Large predators live at low densities and are not increasing, and estimates suggest that that predation is unlikely to impact larger prey species. (iv) Some assessments of illegal hunting indicate little influence on herbivore populations but one measure points to giraffe, hippopotamus, warthog and perhaps other species being adversely affected. (v) Tourist hunting quotas of lions and greater kudu in hunting blocks appear high and there are indications that both may be declining. Preliminary data, approximate calculations and elimination of hypotheses point to anthropogenic factors being partly responsible for changes in this ecosystem and constructive recommendations are made to alter these. More generally, this study highlights the importance of monitoring in conjunction with collecting diverse data when trying to stop population declines before they become too serious.

Decline of large mammals in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of western Tanzania

In the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of western Tanzania, aerial censuses carried out between 1988 and 2002 show that populations of several large ungulate species had declined. Five competing factors that could be responsible for these changes were investigated. (i) Rainfall increased slightly over 25 years and (ii) no obvious outbreaks of disease were witnessed, suggesting that populations are not suffering food shortages or disease. (iii) Large predators live at low densities and are not increasing, and estimates suggest that that predation is unlikely to impact larger prey species. (iv) Some assessments of illegal hunting indicate little influence on herbivore populations but one measure points to giraffe, hippopotamus, warthog and perhaps other species being adversely affected. (v) Tourist hunting quotas of lions and greater kudu in hunting blocks appear high and there are indications that both may be declining. Preliminary data, approximate calculations and elimination of hypotheses point to anthropogenic factors being partly responsible for changes in this ecosystem and constructive recommendations are made to alter these. More generally, this study highlights the importance of monitoring in conjunction with collecting diverse data when trying to stop population declines before they become too serious.

Virological and Serological Studies of Porcine Respiratory Coronavirus Infection on a Japanese Farm

The prevalence of trypanosome infections in tsetse flies, Glossina pallidipes, collected from Chiawa and Chakwenga in Zambia with endemic trypanosomosis was assessed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Out of the 550 G. pallidipes, 58 (10.5%) flies were found to harbor trypanosome DNA. Infection rates of tsetse with Trypanosoma vivax universal, Trypanosoma congolense savannah, T. congolense forest and T. congolense kilifi were 4.2% (23/550), 4.7% (26/550), 1.1% (6/550) and 1.6% (9/550), respectively. To determine the mammalian hosts of T. congolense and T. vivax infections from the tsetse flies, mammalian mitochondrion DNA of blood meal in these flies were analyzed by PCR and subsequent gene sequence analysis of the amplicons. Sequence analysis showed the presence of cytochrome b gene (cyt b) of 7 different mammalian species such as human, elephant, buffalo, goat, warthog, greater kudu and cattle. Goats which were main livestock in these areas were further examined to know the extent of its contribution in spreading the infection. We examined the prevalence of trypanosome infections in the domestic goat population in 6 settlements in Chiawa alone. Of the 86 goats sampled, 4 (4.6%), 5 (5.8%), 4 (4.6%) and 4 (4.6%) were positive for T. vivax universal, T. congolense savannah, forest and kilifi, respectively. These findings showed that the host-source of trypanosome infections in vector fly give a vital information about spread of infection. The result of this study will certainly contribute in elucidating more the epidemiology of trypanosomosis.

Fever and sickness behavior during an opportunistic infection in a free-living antelope, the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)

To study their thermal responses to climatic stress, we implanted seven greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) with intra-abdominal, brain, carotid, and subcutaneous temperature data loggers, as well as an activity logger. Each animal was also equipped with a collar holding a miniature black globe thermometer, which we used to assess thermoregulatory behavior. The kudu ranged freely within succulent thicket vegetation of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The kudu spontaneously developed a bacterial pneumonia and consequent fever that lasted between 6 and 10 days. The fever was characterized by a significant increase in mean 24-h abdominal temperature from 38.9 +/- 0.2 degrees C to 40.2 +/- 0.4 degrees C (means +/- SD, t(6) = 11.01, P < 0.0001), although the amplitude of body temperature rhythm remained unchanged (t(6) = 1.18, P = 0.28). Six of the kudu chose warmer microclimates during the fever than when afebrile (P < 0.0001). Despite the selection of a warmer environment, on the first day of fever, the abdominal-subcutaneous temperature difference was significantly higher than on afebrile days (t(5) = 3.06, P = 0.028), indicating vasoconstriction. Some kudu displayed increased frequency of selective brain cooling during the fever, which would have inhibited evaporative heat loss and increased febrile body temperatures, without increasing the metabolic maintenance costs of high body temperatures. Average daily activity during the fever decreased to 60% of afebrile activity (t(6) = 3.46, P = 0.014). We therefore have recorded quantitative evidence for autonomic and behavioral fever, as well as sickness behavior, in the form of decreased activity, in a free-living ungulate species.