Tragelaphus Strepsiceros Research Articles

How lions move at night when they hunt?

Abstract Movement patterns of lions (Panthera leo) reveal how they hunt large herbivores in heterogeneous landscapes such as the Kruger National Park in South Africa. Large herbivores are distributed differently on the landscape and therefore have different vulnerabilities as prey for lions. For instance, blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) occupy small grazing lawns at night but are difficult for lions to capture because open areas lack cover for stalking. African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) aggregate in large herds but are less available because these herds only intermittently enter the home ranges of individual lion prides. Unlike large herds of wildebeest and buffalo, plains zebra (Equus quagga) move widely in small herds while browsing greater kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa) generally occur in lower densities. We used spatial data derived from GPS collars to investigate several hypotheses regarding the movements of three lion prides in response to their prey. We found that lions were most active and moved longer distances during nighttime than during daytime. Lions remained within their core home ranges on 87% of nights and wandered to the outlying areas of the home ranges every second night. Lions visited grazing lawns, that is, area of short grass, where wildebeest herds resided every second night, and moved toward the direction of buffalo herds within 2 km of vicinity. Lions spent more time near riverbanks that provided dense woody cover at night than expected but concentrated only weakly near sites with surface water where herbivores drank in the dry season. Our study contributes to understanding how lions vary their movements in response to the spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the relative availability and vulnerability of multiple prey species.

Serological Evidence of Antibodies to Rift Valley Fever Virus in Wild and Domestic Animals in Bauchi State, Nigeria.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an arthropod-borne zoonotic disease responsible for severe outbreaks in livestock and humans with concomitant economic losses in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The study, therefore, investigated the seroprevalence of the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) among wild and domestic animals. Blood samples were collected between 2013 and 2015 from 106 wild animals, 300 cattle (Bos indicus), and 200 horses (Equus caballus), respectively, in Yankari Game Reserve (YGR) and Sumu Wildlife Park (SWP) in Bauchi state, Nigeria. Harvested sera from blood were evaluated for the presence of anti-RVFV IgM/IgG antibodies. The overall seroprevalence in cattle was 11.3% (p = 0.677; 95% CI: 0.624–0.730) and in wildlife was 8.5% (p = 0.006; 95% CI: 0.00–0.60). The diversity of wildlife species sampled indicated seropositivity of 36.0% in waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymus), 25.0% in elephant (Loxodonta africana), 12.5% in eland (Taurotragus oryx), and 8.3% in wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). Whereas, samples from zebra (Equus quagga crawshayi), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama) did not show detectable antibodies to RVFV, and seroprevalence in female (15.0%) wildlife species was higher than in males (4.5%) (p = 0.061). Classification of cattle into breed and sex showed no significant difference in seropositivity. Seropositivity of 12.0% was observed in White Fulani, 12.1% in Red Bororo, and 7.8% in Sokoto Gudali breeds of cattle (p = 0.677). Whereas, seropositivity of 13.6% was observed in females and 6.4% observed in males (p = 0.068). This study indicated the presence of antibodies to RVFV among some wild animals and cattle in the absence of a reported outbreak in the study area. The circulation of RVFV in the study area may pose a significant health risk to livestock, wildlife, and humans. Therefore, surveillance for RVFV should be intensified targeting mosquito vectors and humans in Bauchi state, Nigeria.

Immunological Evidence of Variation in Exposure and Immune Response to Bacillus anthracis in Herbivores of Kruger and Etosha National Parks.

Exposure and immunity to generalist pathogens differ among host species and vary across spatial scales. Anthrax, caused by a multi-host bacterial pathogen, Bacillus anthracis, is enzootic in Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa and Etosha National Park (ENP), Namibia. These parks share many of the same potential host species, yet the main anthrax host in one (greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) in KNP and plains zebra (Equus quagga) in ENP) is only a minor host in the other. We investigated species and spatial patterns in anthrax mortalities, B. anthracis exposure, and the ability to neutralize the anthrax lethal toxin to determine if observed host mortality differences between locations could be attributed to population-level variation in pathogen exposure and/or immune response. Using serum collected from zebra and kudu in high and low incidence areas of each park (18- 20 samples/species/area), we estimated pathogen exposure from anti-protective antigen (PA) antibody response using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and lethal toxin neutralization with a toxin neutralization assay (TNA). Serological evidence of pathogen exposure followed mortality patterns within each system (kudus: 95% positive in KNP versus 40% in ENP; zebras: 83% positive in ENP versus 63% in KNP). Animals in the high-incidence area of KNP had higher anti-PA responses than those in the low-incidence area, but there were no significant differences in exposure by area within ENP. Toxin neutralizing ability was higher for host populations with lower exposure prevalence, i.e., higher in ENP kudus and KNP zebras than their conspecifics in the other park. These results indicate that host species differ in their exposure to and adaptive immunity against B. anthracis in the two parks. These patterns may be due to environmental differences such as vegetation, rainfall patterns, landscape or forage availability between these systems and their interplay with host behavior (foraging or other risky behaviors), resulting in differences in exposure frequency and dose, and hence immune response.

Response of southern African ungulate species to supplementary feeding during drought: Species‐specific differences in relative use, food choice and intraspecific behavioural interactions

AbstractIn southern Africa, climate change is increasing drought severity and duration. One way to mitigate drought‐induced food shortages is supplementary feeding, but ungulate responses are largely unstudied. Here, we analyse ~250 h of video footage from camera traps at feeding stations in South Africa during a year when rainfall was ~50% of the decadal average. Feeding station usage was highly uneven: eland (Taurotragus oryx), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), sable (Hippotragus niger) and white rhino (Ceratotherium simum) were over‐represented relative to their local population; and impala (Aepyceros melampus), blesbok (Damaliscus dorxas phillipsi) and zebra (Equus quagga) were under‐represented. In total, 81% of individuals at feeding stations fed (0%–90% for different species). Guarding behaviour was observed, especially by eland and kudu, potentially excluding other (smaller) species. Overall, 17% visits involving ≥2 individuals involved intraspecific aggression (highest for sable (40%) and eland (27%); low/absent otherwise); there were very few (n = 6) inter‐specific encounters. Lucerne and teff hay were consumed more frequently than Boskos (pellets), which was favoured by non‐target primates and ungulates showing guarding behaviour. As benefits of feeding are unequal, and can encourage guarding and intraspecific aggression, we suggest feeding should be done with caution, especially if the aim is to benefit specific species.

Rabies in kudu: Revisited.

Rabies infects all mammals; however, transmission cycles are only maintained in certain bat and carnivore species. The high incidence of rabies in Greater Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) observed in Namibia for over 40 years has led to postulation that independent virus transmission is occurring within this antelope population. We have analysed extensive experimental, epidemiological, phylogeographic and deep sequence data, which collectively refute maintenance of an independent rabies cycle in kudu. As rabies in kudu continues to have a negative impact on the Namibian agricultural sector, measures to protect kudu have been investigated, including the use of a third-generation oral rabies vaccine. Initial results show protection of kudu from rabies infection via the oral route, with an appropriate bait design, different application schedules and vaccination doses further enhancing the immune response. Rabies in kudu is a complex interplay at the wildlife-livestock interface and requires a concerted approach to successfully control.

The Oryx Antelope (Oryx gazella): An Unexpected Host for Porcine Circovirus-2 (PCV-2).

For several years after its discovery, Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) represented a major threat to the swine industry through economic losses due to the associated clinical syndromes, decreased production performances in both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals and disease management costs. Widespread vaccination administration has largely reduced the impact of this infection and represents the most effective control measure. The efficacy of vaccination is threatened by the emergence of novel (or uncommon) PCV-2 genotypes. In addition to domestic pigs, PCV-2 has been detected in several other species, a fact which could have an impact on new variant emergence and maintenance. Considering this, the present study assessed the distribution of the minor PCV-2c genotype in non-Suidae ungulates in Namibia. Red hartebeests (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama) (n = 44), kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) (n = 10) and oryxes (Oryx gazella) (n = 54), whose mediastinal lymph nodes were sampled after slaughtering during the period 2019–2021, were included in the study. Two oryxes (3.7%; 95% CI = 0.45–12.75%) were PCV-2-positive by PCR. Complete genome sequence was obtained for the two samples identifying them as PCV-2c genotype. The sequences were identical and shared a high percentage of identity (~99.9%) with those recently obtained from warthogs living in the same area. The present study confirms the presence of the PCV-2c genotype (previously considered extinct) in Namibian wild animal populations and demonstrates greater than expected PCV-2 host plasticity. Because of the role these niches can have in the maintenance and evolution of minor PCV-2 genotypes, more extensive and dedicated studies should be performed to prepare authorities to promptly react to potential emerging threats from these viruses.

Spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta feeding ecology and selectivity of large herbivorous prey in the Namib desert.

We have investigated the relationship between spotted hyaenas in the south Namib Desert and large herbivorous prey and have summarized an updated overview of predator‐prey relationships in this resource‐limited arid environment. Over the 52‐month study, we recorded the densities (#/km−2, ±SE) of the four local large herbivorous prey species: gemsbok (1.229, ±0.50), springbok (1.352, ±0.48), ostrich (0.648, ±0.23), and greater kudu (0.343, ±0.00). A fecal analysis was performed on 146 collected spotted hyaena scats, and prey items were identified and hairs cross‐follicle analyzed to the species level. Spotted hyaena diet at the study area remained opportunistic with 240 identified prey items representing eight differing prey species being recorded, ranging from ostrich eggs to large ungulates. The Ivlev's Electivity Index was used to determine which large herbivorous prey was most selected for. Although gemsbok had a higher representation of prey items in the sampled scats, all sampled large herbivorous prey species scored below 0 and are thus generally avoided in relation to their availability in the environment. If any prey preferences are expressed by spotted hyaena in the Namib, it can be presumed to be a nonsampled prey species. We therefore promote further detailed investigations into all other prey species present, and seasonal variations of prey densities and scat sampling, within the study environment.

Ecotourism Potential Assessment of Dhera Dilfekar Block, Arsi Mountains National Park, Eastern Central Rift valley of Ethiopia

Ethiopia holds substantial ecotourism potentials that have to be promoted for economic development. This study was done with the objective of assessing ecotourism potentials of Dhera dilfekar block for ecotourism development. Dhera dilfekar block is one of the four blocks of Arsi Mountains National Park. Seven (7) major tourist attraction sites were identified namely; Dire kiltu hyena valley, Dire kiltu lesser kudu site, Dire kiltu greater kudu site , Fachiso greater kudu site , Gara dima hyena valley(1), Awash bishola dhagaa taa’aa valley and Gara dima hyena valley(2) .Additionally, the park can offer the visitor an opportunity to see lowland game species, a variety of bird species, Acacia dominated plant species with spectacular landscape, historical and Cultural sites which make the parks unique features to attract eco tourists. The block is the nearest to Addis Ababa (Finfinne) from any other Parks of our country and is found on the main asphalt road which goes to Bale Zone via Adama-Asella. Dhera dilfekar block is found in the lowland that situated in altitudinal elevation ranges from 1300 masl to 1835 masl. This makes the block to be visited all over the year for both domestic and international tourists since there is no mud to travel by vehicle and on foot. The proximity to Sodere resort hotel also brings additional opportunity to be visited by both domestic and foreign tourists. It can be concluded that the area is endowed with high Ecotourism potentials. It can also be good potential for bird watching tourism that can integrate economic gain with biodiversity conservation. Hence, urgent conservation measures and further detail research is recommended to promote this Ecotourism potentials. Key words :Ecotourism, Arsi Mountains, Potential, Dhera dilfekar, Attraction DOI: 10.7176/JTHS/55-01 Publication date: March 31 st 2021

Some gastrointestinal nematodes and ixodid ticks shared by several wildlife species in the Kruger National Park, South Africa.

Parasite surveys were conducted for 1–2 years in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa on blue wildebeest, impalas, greater kudus, common warthogs and scrub hares. The host associations of some of the gastrointestinal nematode species infecting ≥60% of at least one of the five host species, were determined. These were Agriostomum gorgonis, Cooperia acutispiculum, Cooperia connochaeti, Cooperia hungi, Cooperia neitzi, Cooperioides hamiltoni, Gaigeria pachyscelis, Haemonchus bedfordi, Haemonchus krugeri, Haemonchus vegliai, Impalaia tuberculata, Longistrongylus sabie, Strongyloides papillosus, Trichostrongylus deflexus and Trichostrongylus thomasi. Although the prevalence of Trichostrongylus falculatus did not exceed 50% in any host species, it was present in all five hosts. Nematodes in the KNP range from those exhibiting strict host associations to generalists. Nematode-host associations may be determined by host feeding patterns and habitat use. Eight ixodid tick species were commonly collected from the same animals and in 2–3 year long surveys from plains zebras and helmeted guinea fowls: Amblyomma hebraeum, Amblyomma marmoreum, Hyalomma truncatum, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus decoloratus, Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi, Rhipicephalus simus and Rhipicephalus zambeziensis. Host specificity was less pronounced in ixodid tick species than in nematodes and the immature stages of five tick species infested all host species examined.

The influence of an apex predator introduction on an already established subordinate predator

AbstractAfrican lions (Panthera leo) can influence the location, distribution and behaviour of smaller carnivores such as cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). In fenced protected areas, where space is limited, the effects of the apex predator can be exaggerated to the point of localized extinction of the subordinate. Here, we directly compare the prey selection of cheetahs before and after the re‐introduction of lions to the Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa. The lion re‐introduction did not significantly influence the diet of the cheetahs. Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) comprised >75% of cheetah diet both before and after the lion re‐introduction with no noticeable changes in the size ranges of prey selected. In addition, there was no significant dietary overlap (O < 0.45) with the lions. Our study supports recent findings that cheetahs, as subordinate predators, can coexist with larger, more aggressive carnivores within an enclosed environment without compromising access to resources. However, our work represents a temporal snapshot into lion and cheetah foraging behaviour in an enclosed system and we recommend further research across multiple sites and predator densities.

Epidemiology of Tuberculosis in Multi-Host Wildlife Systems: Implications for Black (Diceros bicornis) and White (Ceratotherium simum) Rhinoceros.

Cases of tuberculosis (TB) resulting from infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) have been recorded in captive white (Ceratotherium simum) and black (Diceros bicornis) rhinoceros. More recently, cases have been documented in free-ranging populations of both species in bovine tuberculosis (bTB) endemic areas of South Africa. There is limited information on risk factors and transmission patterns for MTBC infections in African rhinoceros, however, extrapolation from literature on MTBC infections in other species and multi-host systems provides a foundation for understanding TB epidemiology in rhinoceros species. Current diagnostic tests include blood-based immunoassays but distinguishing between subclinical and active infections remains challenging due to the lack of diagnostic techniques. In other species, demographic risk factors for MTBC infection include sex and age, where males and adults are generally at higher risk than females and younger individuals. Limited available historical information reflects similar age- and sex-associated patterns for TB in captive black and white rhinoceros, with more reports of MTBC-associated disease in black rhinoceros than in white rhinoceros. The degree of MTBC exposure in susceptible wildlife depends on their level of interaction, either directly with other infected individuals or indirectly through MTBC contaminated environments, which is dependent on the presence and abundance of infected reservoir hosts and the amount of MTBC shed in their excreta. Captive African rhinoceros have shown evidence of MTBC shedding, and although infection levels are low in free-ranging rhinoceros, there is a risk for intraspecies transmission. Free-ranging rhinoceros in bTB endemic areas may be exposed to MTBC from other infected host species, such as the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), through shared environmental niches, and resource co-utilization. This review describes current knowledge and information gaps regarding the epidemiology of TB in African rhinoceros.

English

There is a lack of consensus among conservationists regarding the association between trophy hunting and wildlife poaching. Anti-hunting groups argue that trophy hunting is against animal welfare and contributes to wildlife population decline so it must be refuted. On the other hand, pro-hunting groups for advocate regulated hunting as an essential tool for supporting habitat protection and reducing crimes. Regulated hunting creates incentives for conservation through direct and indirect methods and reduces wildlife poaching in areas where ecotourism cannot be practically viable. We used fifteen years' trophy hunting and poaching of African elephant (Loxodonta africana), lion (Panthera leo), Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), Common Zebra (Equus quagga), hippopotamus (Common Hippotamus amphibious) and Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) from Selous and Rungwa game reserves in Tanzania. The results showed that there is no evidence of influence of regulated hunting on poaching rate for all species with exception of African elephant. Poaching rate of African elephant was found to be higher than the rate of regulated hunting because of limited number of quota set by Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and international restriction of elephant hunting imposed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The study suggests that the contentions to stop trophy hunting because of an increase in poaching incidents have no empirical justification. Thus, more effort should be on anti-poaching activities ensuring the adherence to legal hunting regulations. Key words: Poaching, hunting, trophy, conservation, biodiversity.

Abundance, Species Diversity, and Distribution of Diurnal Mammals in Humbo Community-Based Forest Area, Southern Ethiopia

This study was undertaken with the intention of assessing abundance, species diversity, and distribution of medium and large diurnal mammals at the Humbo Community Based Forest Area, Ethiopia. The study area was stratified into three major habitats based on the vegetation cover of the area, such as riverine forest, bushland, and open grassland. The study in each vegetation type was surveyed using the transect method. It was conducted on foot along a randomly selected transect line. A total of eight large and medium mammalian species were recorded. The species recorded were Papio anubis, Sylvicapra grimmia, Tragelaphus scriptus, Chlorocebus pygerythrus, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, Lepus fagani, Phacochorus ethiopicus, and Panthera leo. During the survey, the leading order recorded was Artiodactyla followed by Primates. In terms of relative abundance, Anubis baboon (28.4% and 28.1%) and common duiker (19.4% and 11.4%) were the most abundant species, while warthog (12.1% and 8.9%) and lion (0.7% and 0.4%) were the least abundant during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. The highest number of mammalian species were distributed in bushland habitat during both wet (n = 7) and dry (n = 7) seasons. The highest Shannon-winner diversity index and evenness were obtained in the bushland habitat (1.70 and 2.21) during wet and dry seasons, respectively. Though the forest is the living place for various wild mammalian species, the conservation measures of the local community should also consider those species in line with the efforts that have been done on forest management practices.

Woody Species Structure and Regeneration Status in Kafta Sheraro National Park Dry Forest, Tigray Region, Ethiopia

The study was conducted in Kafta Sheraro National Park (KSNP) dry woodland natural forest located in Kafta Humera and Tahitay Adiyabo weredas (districts), Western and Northwestern Zones of Tigray regional governmental state, North Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to explore the floristic composition, structure, and regeneration of woody species in the home ofLoxodonta africanaL.,Hippotragus equinus,Anthropoides virgo,Ourebia ourebi,Crocuta crocuta,Tragelaphus strepsiceros,Phacochoerus africanus, and unidentified crocodile and fish species. In the park, the vegetation ecology has not been studied up to date which is necessary for conservation. The systematic sampling technique was used to collect vegetation and human disturbance (presence and absence) data from August to December 2018. The vegetation data were collected from 161 plots each with a size of 400 m2(20 m × 20 m) for tree/shrub while subplots of size 100 m2(10 m × 10 m) and 25 m2(5 m × 5 m) for sapling and seedling, respectively, were established in the main plots. Individual tree and shrub diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥2.5 cm and height ≥ 2 m were measured using tape meter and clinometer, respectively. Diameter at breast height (DBH), frequency, density, basal area, and importance value index (IVI) were used for vegetation structure description while the density of mature trees, sapling, and seedling was used for regeneration. A total of 70 woody species (46 (65.7%) trees, 18 (25.7%) shrubs, and 6 (8.6%) tree/shrub) were identified. The total basal area and density of 79.3 ± 4.6 m2·ha−1and 466 ± 12.8 stems·ha−1, respectively, were calculated for 64 woody species. Fabaceae was the most dominant family with 16 species (22.9%) followed by Combretaceae with 8 species (11.4%). The most dominant and frequent species throughout the park wereAcacia mellifera,Combretum hartmannianum,Terminalia brownii,Balanites aegyptiaca,Dichrostachys cinerea,Acacia senegal,Acacia oerfota,Boswellia papyrifera, Ziziphus spina-christi, andAnogeissus leiocarpus. Abnormal patterns of selected woody species were dominantly identified. The regenerating status of all the woody plant species was categorized as “fair” (18.75%), “poor” (7.81%), and “none” (73.44%). There was a significant correlation between altitude, anthropogenic disturbance (grazing and fire frequency), and density of seedling, sapling, and mature trees. But there was no correlation between gold mining and regeneration population. However, there is a good initiation for the conservation of the park; still, the vegetation of the park was threatened by human-induced fire following intensive farming, gold mining, and overgrazing. Therefore, the study area was the habitat for the population of the African elephant; species with low importance value indices and lack or having few seedling and sapling stage should be prioritized for conservation, and their soil seed banks should be studied further.

Forbs and herbs diet of the Tragelaphus strepsiceros at Musina Nature Reserve, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Forbs and herbs diet of the <i>Tragelaphus strepsiceros</i> at Musina Nature Reserve, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Human–wildlife conflict in Mhokwe Ward, Mbire District, North‐East Zimbabwe

AbstractThis research investigates the economic and social aspects of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in Mhokwe, Mbire district, Zimbabwe. Data were collected through key informant interviews and a questionnaire survey. Most households in Mhokwe rely on crop and livestock production, and hence, HWC is an important factor affecting livelihoods. More than 60% of respondents experienced problems with lions (Panthera leo Linnaeus), spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta Erxleben), armoured bush crickets (Acanthoplus speiseri Brancsik) and quelea birds (Quelea quelea Reichenbach). Other problem animals included elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus Cuvier), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros Pallas), chacma baboon (Papio ursinus Kerr), bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus Linnaeus) and common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia Linnaeus). Few incidences of conflicts were reported for hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius Linnaeus), side‐striped jackal (Canis adustus Sundevall), porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis Peters), nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti), African wild cat (Felis lybica Forster), African python (Python sebae Gmelin) and guinea fowl (Numida meleagris Linnaeus). Livestock and crop losses were US$45,285 and US$57,541 in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Despite the losses, most respondents had positive attitudes towards wildlife. Construction of strong kraals and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) can contribute to conflict reduction.

A camera trap record of scavengers at a kudu carcass: implications for archaeological bone accumulations

A camera trap was set near a greater kudu bull carcass for 3 weeks at the start of winter. The carcass lay in an open savanna setting on a game farm in Limpopo, and it was visited by leopard, brown hyena, black-backed jackal, African civet, honey badger, bushpig and warthog. At the end of a month there were no visible remains of the carcass save the skull and damaged horns. After a week, when decomposition was pronounced, suids spent more time at the carcass than other animals. They may have been responsible for much of the on-site bone consumption. Bone and meat portions not eaten directly at the death scene were probably carried away by scavengers like brown hyena and jackal. The area was excavated and sieved to collect bone debris that might have been trampled into sediment. Only a few small bone fragments were recovered, one of which had a tooth mark. Several outcomes are of interest to archaeologists. Firstly, the diversity of scavengers at the kudu carcass (including some animals not normally classified as scavengers) suggests that damage on surviving bone at some archaeological sites may be from an assortment of animals not normally considered to be scavengers. Comparative collections must accommodate such variety. Secondly, under certain environmental conditions, death assemblages in the wild may disappear without trace when predators can move freely and feed without disturbance. Thirdly, is possible that some bone fragments survive at archaeological sites because they were protected (possibly unintentionally) by human presence, and because they were on occasion processed in ways that made them less attractive to predators.

Diversity of medium and large mammals in the Loka Abaya National Park, southern Ethiopia.

We evaluated the richness, diversity, and composition of the medium and large mammal community in the Loka Abaya National Park (LANP), southern Ethiopia, and how these parameters differ among four habitat types: wooded grassland, riverine forest, hilly scrubland and wetland, and between seasons. We recorded a total of 2,573 individual animals of 28 medium and large mammal species in the park. This included three globally threatened species: the endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), the vulnerable Leopard (Panthera pardus), and Hippopotamus (Hippopothamus amphibius). Season had little effect on species richness, diversity, and composition both across and within habitat types. However, species richness across seasons was significantly different among the four habitat types, in the declining order of the following: wooded grassland > riverine forest > hilly scrubland > wetland. The strongest similarity in species composition, both across and within seasons, was found between wooded grassland and riverine forest. In terms of relative abundance, mammal assemblage of the wooded grassland and wetland habitats had more evenly distributed number of species with different relative abundance categories. Overall, Anubis Baboon (Papio anubis), Grivet Monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops), and Greater Kudu (Tragelephus strepsiceros) were the three most abundant species across habitat types. In conclusion, findings of our study reveal that LANP plays an important role in Ethiopia's mammal conservation. Our findings will serve as baseline information for managers of the park to make effective conservation decisions and as a baseline for researchers wishing to conduct related ecological studies.

Trophy Hunting and Possible Source-Sink Dynamics in Protected Areas: Insights from Trophy Size and Offtake Patterns in Southeast Zimbabwe

Developing harvest management strategies in designated hunting areas requires systematic and robust monitoring. We assessed the trophy size, quota utilization, and distribution of kill sites of African elephant, Cape buffalo, greater kudu, and leopard for the period 2007-2014 in Malapati Safari Area, southeast Zimbabwe. Trophy sizes for African elephant significantly increased over time albeit being below the expected minimum Safari Club International (SCI) score. Cape buffalo trophy sizes declined significantly over time but were not different from the SCI minimum score. However, greater kudu trophy sizes were higher than the SCI minimum score despite being constant over time. Leopard trophy sizes were higher than the SCI minimum score and increased with time. Quota utilization for African elephant and Cape buffalo increased while that of greater kudu and leopard did not change between 2007 and 2014. Some kill sites, in particular, for the African elephant and Cape buffalo, were within the buffer area with the state protected area, i.e., Gonarezhou National Park. Increased hunting pressure likely leads to poor trophy quality and hunting within the protected buffer areas. In contrast, effective adherence to hunting ethics and scientifically and conservatively set quotas largely does not compromise the trophy quality of harvested species. The observed trophy size patterns and kill sites distribution suggest the possible existence of source and sink dynamics of trophy species occurring in a protected area complex within the Zimbabwe’s component of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park. To ensure sustainable trophy hunting in the study area and similar ecosystems the following are recommended: (i) scientifically robust, adaptable, and participatory quota setting process, (ii) enhanced adherence to good practice in terms of ethical hunting conduct, and (iii) development of a robust hunting monitoring system covering all elements of hunting for adaptive wildlife management.

Ecology and epidemiology of rabies in humans, domestic animals and wildlife in Namibia, 2011-2017.

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease that causes a heavy burden on societies. Namibia, a country in southern Africa, is aiming at controlling the disease in its main reservoir, the domestic dog. To facilitate the implementation comprehensive information on the ecology and epidemiology of the disease and surveillance is of utmost importance. The study presented assesses the baseline data for both human and animal rabies surveillance in Namibia in recent times and establishes correlations with ecological and socio-economic data in order to provide an up-to-date picture on the epidemiology of rabies in Namibia. For instance, it was important to identify the main drivers in the epidemiology, and whether the control strategy by mass vaccination of dogs is undermined by cycles of rabies in wildlife. Rabies in humans was reported mainly from the Northern Communal Areas (NCAs), with a total of 113 cases from 2011 to 2017, representing an incidence of between 1.0 and 2.4 annual human rabies deaths per 100,000 inhabitants. Kavango, the region with the highest human rabies incidence was also the region with the lowest animal rabies surveillance intensity. Generally, the vast majority (77%) of dog samples originated from communal farm land, followed by urban areas (17%), while only a small fraction (3%) was submitted from freehold farm areas. In contrast, kudu and eland submissions were almost exclusively from freehold farmland (76%) and urban areas (19%), whereas the submission of cattle samples was evenly distributed among freehold farms (46%) and communal farm land (46%). The likelihood of sample submission decreased exponentially with distance to one of the two laboratories. Overall, 67% (N = 1,907) of all samples submitted tested rabies-positive, with the highest positivity rate observed in kudus (89%) and jackals (87%). The transmission cycle of rabies in dogs appears restricted to the northern communal areas of Namibia, whilst rabies in wildlife species is predominately reported from farmland in central Namibia, mostly affecting kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and livestock with a likely reservoir in wildlife canids such as jackals or bat-eared foxes. The analysis confirms the presence of two independent transmission cycles in Namibia with little geographic overlap, thus allowing for a sustainable control of rabies in dogs in the NCAs.