Phaseolus Vulgaris Research Articles

Evaluation of the effect of ethanol extract of Phaseolus vulgaris seeds on haematological parameters of alloxan-induced Wistar diabetic rats

Evaluation of the effect of ethanol extract of Phaseolus vulgaris seeds on haematological parameters of alloxan-induced Wistar diabetic rats

Impacts of Rhizobium inoculation and Fe3O4 nanoparticles on common beans plants: a magnetic study of absorption, translocation, and accumulation processes

Impacts of Rhizobium inoculation and Fe3O4 nanoparticles on common beans plants: a magnetic study of absorption, translocation, and accumulation processes

The Potential of Using Different Legume Species in a Push–Pull Approach to Manage Spodoptera frugiperda in Maize in China

ABSTRACTFall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith), a notorious pest native to the tropical and subtropical Americas, has recently invaded China, causing substantial damage to crops, particularly maize. The push–pull strategy has been reported to be an effective prevention measure for FAW in Africa, with maize–soybean intercropping significantly reducing FAW infestation. To assess the potential of legume hosts as ‘push’ or ‘pull’ plants to control FAW in maize, we employed life table analysis and indoor cage tests to investigate the offspring performance, feeding and oviposition preference of FAW on five selected legume species, namely mung bean (Vigna radiata L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), red bean (Vigna angularis Willd.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), with maize (Zea mays L.) as a control. Mung bean and cowpea were subsequently selected as repellent and attractant plant, respectively, to study FAW infestation levels in maize in the field. The results showed that maize was the most suitable host plant for FAW, as indicated by its shortest developmental duration and highest pupal weight. However, among all the tested legume species, cowpea was the best host for FAW, with shorter larval, pre‐adult and adult durations than on the leaves of the other legumes. Moreover, the feeding and oviposition preference tests revealed that FAW had a strong preference for maize and cowpea, but strongly rejected mung bean. Compared with that in the maize monoculture group, the total number of eggs laid in the maize–mung group decreased by 67.25%, whereas that in the maize–cowpea group significantly increased by 2.04‐fold in greenhouse tests. In the randomised block field experiment, the infestation of maize by FAW in the mung bean–cowpea system was significantly lower than that in the maize monoculture or in the system with maize surrounded only by cowpea. This study indicated that mung bean and cowpea are promising candidates as repellent plants (push) and attractant plants (pull), respectively, for intercropping with maize to reduce the damage caused by FAW.

Impact of cadmium on photosynthetic pigments, root structure, and nutrient concentrations in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants

Impact of cadmium on photosynthetic pigments, root structure, and nutrient concentrations in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants

The identification of a key gene highlights macrocyclic ring’s role in trichothecene toxicity

Trichothecenes are toxins produced by certain species from several fungal genera, including Aspergillus, Fusarium, Isaria, Paramyrothecium, Stachybotrys, Trichoderma, and Trichothecium. These toxins are of interest because they contribute to the toxigenicity, plant pathogenicity, and/or biological control activities of some fungi. All trichothecenes have the same core (12,13-epoxytrichothec-9-ene or EPT) structure but can differ from one another by the presence or absence of a macrocyclic ring formed from polyketide and isoprenoid substituents esterified to carbon atoms 4 and 15 of EPT, respectively. Genes required for formation and some modifications of EPT have been elucidated, but almost nothing is known about genes specific to the formation of the macrocyclic ring. Therefore, we used genomic, transcriptomic, metabolomic, and gene deletion analyses to identify genes that are required specifically for the formation of the macrocyclic ring. These analyses identified one gene, TRI24, that is predicted to encode an acyltransferase and that is required for macrocyclic ring formation during biosynthesis of macrocyclic trichothecenes by the fungus Paramyrothecium roridum. In addition, a TRI24 deletion mutant of P. roridum caused less severe disease symptoms on common bean and had less antifungal activity than its wild-type progenitor strain. We propose that the reduced aggressiveness and antifungal activity of the mutant resulted from its inability to produce trichothecenes with a macrocyclic ring. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a gene required specifically for the formation of the macrocyclic ring of trichothecenes and that loss of the macrocyclic ring of trichothecenes can alter the biological activities of a fungus.Key points• TRI24 gene is found in all known macrocyclic trichothecene-producing fungi.• A tri24-deletion mutant exhibits a reduction in antifungal and plant disease activities.• TRI24 is the first described gene specific to macrocyclic trichothecene biosynthesis.Graphical abstract

Characterization of Maize, Common Bean, and Avocado Crops under Abiotic Stress Factors Using Spectral Signatures on the Visible to Near-Infrared Spectrum

Characterization of Maize, Common Bean, and Avocado Crops under Abiotic Stress Factors Using Spectral Signatures on the Visible to Near-Infrared Spectrum

Residual herbicides applied to common bean cultivars on maize yield in succession

Given the introduction of increasingly productive and early maturing maize cultivars over the past decade, coupled with the restricted availability of herbicides for controlling eudicots weeds in common bean crops, leading producers have resorted to using mixtures of active ingredients. Consequently, there arises a necessity for studies to assess the carryover effects of these mixtures in succession crops. The objective of this study was to evaluate the residual effect of herbicides applied in common bean cultivars on maize, during two cultivation periods. The statistical design was a randomized complete block with four replications. The common bean cultivars BRS Pérola, IPR Tuiuiú, and BRSMG Marte were planted in the summer season 2016/2017 and in the winter season 2017, and subsequently, the maize DKB 390PRO was planted in the winter season and summer season, respectively. The experimental plots were treated with herbicides applied post-emergence, isolated or mixed, at the following rates [g a.i. ha-1]: fomesafen [250]; fomesafen [375]; bentazon + imazamox [600+28]; bentazon + imazamox + fomesafen [(600+28)+125]; and bentazon + imazamox + fomesafen [(600+28)+87.5]; and hand weeding without herbicide. The herbicides did not cause negative effects on maize yield, regardless of the sowing period and common bean cultivar.

Investigation of Antioxidant Potential of Black Beans Due to Phytochemical and Globulin Content for Nutraceutical Application

The study aims to elucidate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of black beans and identify the key contributors within the beans. Black beans boast high protein and phytochemical content, suggesting potential antioxidant activity. This work delves into this possibility, focusing on the role of globulins (a protein fraction) and various phytochemicals in black bean’s bioactivity. Globulins were isolated from black beans by salt precipitation. Ethanolic and aqueous extracts were prepared, followed by phytochemical screening for phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, etc. Quantification of phenolics and flavonoids was performed by colorimetric assays. SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry identified the isolated globulin. Ferric reducing potential and total antioxidant capacity tests assessed antioxidant capacity, while erythrocyte membrane stabilisation inhibition evaluated anti-inflammatory potential. Black beans exhibited a diverse range of phytochemicals. The ethanolic extract displayed the highest flavonoid content (11.18±0.11mg QE/gram extract), while the aqueous extract was richest in phenolics (0.71±0.14 mg GAE/gram extract). The aqueous extract displayed the strongest antioxidant activity (2.87 ± 0.98 mg AAE/gram extract), followed by the globulin fraction (1.23± 0.43 mg AAE/gram extract). The ethanolic extract demonstrated superior anti-inflammatory activity. Mass spectrometry identified globulin as a 68.7 kDa legumin protein from Phaseolus vulgaris. Black beans display significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity due to globulins and diverse phytochemicals. By informing dietary practices and facilitating the development of nutraceutical interventions, this work has the potential to contribute to a healthier population.

Report on the Influence of Homeopathic/Nosode Foliar Applications on Phaseolus vulgaris (L.): Agronomic and Phytochemical Changes and Control of Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boh.) and Diabrotica balteata (LeConte)

Nosodes are solutions prepared from pests, capable of controlling those same pests in crops. The use of these solutions in agriculture is an emerging technology for producing eco-friendly and inexpensive plant-based foods free from toxic compounds. The effects of applying nosodes to bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) crops before and after harvest were evaluated. The experiment was conducted in the field, with nosode 200CH applied once, three times, biweekly, and weekly from the flowering stage of the “Delgado” bean plant. The application of nosodes resulted in a 108% higher yield, 26% greater biomass, a 32% increase in root length, 34% more pods, and up to a 227% decrease in damaged pods compared to untreated plants. Furthermore, compared to the untreated plants, treated plants exhibited a 37% higher membrane stability and a phenolic content that was up to 27% higher in seeds and 22% higher in leaves. Plants under conventional management showed 61% less Diabrotica balteata (LeConte) incidence than nosode-treated ones. Seeds treated with nosodes exhibited a mortality in Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boh.) of up to 80%. This study highlights the use of nosodes in bean cultivation as an agronomic strategy to enhance seed production and quality, aiding producers in informed decision making about their application.

Research on variety identification of common bean seeds based on hyperspectral and deep learning

Accurate, fast and non-destructive identification of varieties of common bean seeds is important for the cultivation and efficient utilization of common beans. This study is based on hyperspectral and deep learning to identify the varieties of common bean seeds non-destructively. In this study, the average spectrum of 3078 hyperspectral images from 500 varieties was obtained after image segmentation and sensitive region extraction, and the Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE) was used to achieve the equilibrium of the samples of various varieties. A one-dimensional convolutional neural network model (IResCNN) incorporating Inception module and residual structure was proposed to identify seed varieties, and Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), VGG19, AlexNet, ResNet50 were established to compare the identification effect. After analyzing the effects of multiple spectral preprocessing methods on the model, the study selected Savitzky-Golay smoothing correction (SG) for spectral preprocessing and extracted 66 characteristic wavelengths using Successive Projections Algorithm (SPA) as inputs to the discriminative model. Ultimately, the IResCNN model achieved the highest accuracy of 93.06 % on the test set, indicating that hyperspectral technology can accurately identify bean varieties, and the study provides a correct method of thinking for the non-destructive classification of multi-species small-sample bean varieties.

Multispectral UAV Image Classification of Jimson Weed (Datura stramonium L.) in Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Jimson weed (Datura stramonium L.) is a toxic weed that is occasionally found in fields with common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) for the processing industry. Common bean growers are required to manually remove toxic weeds. If toxic weed plants remain, the standing crop will be rejected. Hence, the implementation of an automatic weed detection system aiding the farmers is badly needed. The overall goal of this study was to investigate if D. stramonium can be located in common bean fields using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based ten-band multispectral camera. Therefore four objectives were defined: (I) assessing the spectral discriminative capacity between common bean and D. stramonium by the development and application of logistic regression models; (II) examining the influence of ground sampling distance (GSD) on model performance; and improving model generalization by (III) incorporating the use of vegetation indices and cumulative distribution function (CDF) matching and by (IV) combining spectral data from multiple common bean fields with the use of leave-one-group-out cross-validation (LOGO CV). Logistic regression models were created using data from fields at four different locations in Belgium. Based on the results, it was concluded that common bean and D. stramonium are separable based on multispectral information. A model trained and tested on the data of one location obtained a validation true positive rate and true negative rate of 99% and 95%, respectively. In this study, where D. stramonium had a mean plant size of 0.038 m2 (σ = 0.020), a GSD of 2.1 cm was found to be appropriate. However, the results proved to be location dependent as the model was not able to reliably distinguish D. stramonium in two other datasets. Finally, the use of a LOGO CV obtained the best results. Although small D. stramonium plants were still systematically overlooked and classified as common bean, the model was capable of detecting large D. stramonium plants on three of the four fields. This study emphasizes the variability in reflectance data among different common bean fields and the importance of an independent dataset to test model generalization.

Multi-Elemental Analysis and Geographical Discrimination of Greek "Gigantes Elefantes" Beans Utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry and Machine Learning Models.

Greek giant beans, also known as "Gigantes Elefantes" (elephant beans, Phaseolus vulgaris L.,) are a traditional and highly cherished culinary delight in Greek cuisine, contributing significantly to the economic prosperity of local producers. However, the issue of food fraud associated with these products poses substantial risks to both consumer safety and economic stability. In the present study, multi-elemental analysis combined with decision tree learning algorithms were investigated for their potential to determine the multi-elemental profile and discriminate the origin of beans collected from the two geographical areas. Ensuring the authenticity of agricultural products is increasingly crucial in the global food industry, particularly in the fight against food fraud, which poses significant risks to consumer safety and economic stability. To ascertain this, an extensive multi-elemental analysis (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ge, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, Re, Se, Sr, Ta, Ti, Tl, U, V, W, Zn, and Zr) was performed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Bean samples originating from Kastoria and Prespes (products with Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) status) were studied, focusing on the determination of elemental profiles or fingerprints, which are directly related to the geographical origin of the growing area. In this study, we employed a decision tree algorithm to classify Greek "Gigantes Elefantes" beans based on their multi-elemental composition, achieving high performance metrics, including an accuracy of 92.86%, sensitivity of 87.50%, and specificity of 96.88%. These results demonstrate the model's effectiveness in accurately distinguishing beans from different geographical regions based on their elemental profiles. The trained model accomplished the discrimination of Greek "Gigantes Elefantes" beans from Kastoria and Prespes, with remarkable accuracy, based on their multi-elemental composition.

Development, Soil Biodegradation, and Kinetics Evaluation of Starch-Based Bioplastic from Sechium edule and Phaseoulus vulgaris

Development, Soil Biodegradation, and Kinetics Evaluation of Starch-Based Bioplastic from Sechium edule and Phaseoulus vulgaris

Growth, Development, Yield Attributes and Yield of French Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) as Influenced by Doses and Methods of Nitrogen Application

A field experiment was carried out at School of Natural Resource Management, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, CAU, Umiam, Meghalaya during summer season 2021 to study the effect of different doses and application methods of nitrogen on the growth, yield and yield attributes of Frenchbean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). The experiment comprised of four doses of nitrogen viz.,0, 30, 60, 90 kg ha-1 and two methods of its application i.e., full dose as nitrogen as basal application and 2/3 of nitrogen dose as basal and 1/3 of nitrogen dose split application at active branching stage. The experiments consist of a total of 7 treatments laid out in Randomized Block Design with four replications. Growth parameters such as plant height and number of branches per plant in frenchbean showed a significant increase at all the growth stages with increase in nitrogen doses. Maximum plant height (39.35 cm) and number of branches per plant (3.56) were observed with application of 90 kg N ha-1. The grain yield (762.32 kg ha-1) was observed with application of 90 kg N ha-1 whereas, lowest grain yield was observed in control (146.25 kg ha-1). Yield attributes were observed to follow the same trend with highest number of pods per plant as 5.44, number of seeds per pod as observed significantly more values of all the above said parameters of growth and yield of frenchbeanin comparison to full dose of nitrogen as basal alone. Therefore, the finding of this experiment suggest that the frenchbean should be grown with 90 kg N ha-1 and 2/3 of this dose should be applied as basal application while remaining 1/3 should be applied as top dressing at active branching stage for better growth and yield of frenchbean.

Common Bean Suppresses Hepatic Ceramide Metabolism in a Mouse Model of Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease.

Background/Objectives: The incidence of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), a condition linked to the ongoing obesity pandemic, is rapidly increasing worldwide. In turn, its multifactorial etiology is consistently associated with low dietary quality. Changing dietary macronutrient and phytochemical quality via incorporating cooked common bean into an obesogenic diet formulation has measurable health benefits on the occurrence of both obesity and hepatic steatosis in C57BL/6 mice. Methods: A cohort of C57BL/6 mice were randomized into experimental diets containing multiple dietary concentrations of common bean. The primary endpoint of this study was comparing metabolomic analyses from liver and plasma of different treatment groups. Additionally, RNA sequencing and protein expression analysis via nanocapillary immunoelectrophoresis were used to elucidate signaling mediators involved. Results: Herein, global metabolomic profiling of liver and plasma identified sphingolipids as a lipid subcategory on which bean consumption exerted significant effects. Of note, C16 and C18 ceramides were significantly decreased in bean-fed animals. Hepatic RNAseq data revealed patterns of transcript expression of genes involved in sphingolipid metabolism that were consistent with metabolite profiles. Conclusions: Bean incorporation into an otherwise obesogenic diet induces effects on synthesis, biotransformation, and degradation of sphingolipids that inhibit the accumulation of ceramide species that exert pathological activity. These effects are consistent with a mechanistic role for altered sphingolipid metabolism in explaining how bean inhibits the development of MASLD.

Genome-Wide Association for Morphological and Agronomic Traits in Phaseolus vulgaris L. Accessions.

Exploring genetic resources through genomic analyses has emerged as a powerful strategy to develop common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars that are both productive and well-adapted to various environments. This study aimed to identify genomic regions linked to morpho-agronomic traits in Mesoamerican and Andean common bean accessions and to elucidate the proteins potentially involved in these traits. We evaluated 109 common bean accessions over three agricultural years, focusing on traits including the grain yield (YDSD), 100-seed weight (SW), number of seeds per pod (SDPD), number of pods per plant (PDPL), first pod insertion height (FPIH), plant height (PLHT), days to flowering (DF), and days to maturity (DPM). Using multilocus methods such as mrMLM, FASTmrMLM, FASTmrEMMA, ISIS EM-BLASSO, and pLARmEB, we identified 36 significant SNPs across all chromosomes (Pv01 to Pv11). Validating these SNPs and candidate genes in segregating populations is crucial for developing more productive common bean cultivars through marker-assisted selection.

Complete genome sequence of lima bean endornavirus 1: a putative new member of the genus Alphaendornavirus (family Endornaviridae).

In this study, we completely sequenced the genome of a new member of the genus Alphaendornavirus, family Endornaviridae, from lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), for which we propose the name "lima bean endornavirus 1" (LbEV1). The complete genome of LbEV1 consists of 15,265 nucleotides, including a stretch of 12 cytosine residues at its 3' end, and contains a long single open reading frame (ORF) coding for a 4980-aa-long polyprotein. Analysis of the polyprotein sequence revealed the presence of four conserved functional domains (in order from the N- to C-terminus): viral helicase 1, peptidase _C97, glycosyltransferase_GTB-type, and viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP). The LbEV1 polyprotein showed the highest amino acid sequence similarity (63% identity and 98% coverage) to Phaseolus vulgaris endornavirus 3 (PvEV3) and also showed 42% identity (95% coverage) to Geranium carolinianum endornavirus. Phylogenetic analysis based on the viral RdRp domain showed that LbEV1 belongs to a subclade within the genus Alphaendornavirus that includes three other viruses infecting plants of the genus Phaseolus.

Effects of integrated fertilizer application on selected soil properties and yield attributes of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) on different soil types

In Ethiopia, common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) productivity remains low because of low soil fertility. However, both plant production and soil fertility benefit from integrated application of fertilizers. Thus, this study investigates the effect of integrated application of inorganic, organic and biofertilizers on selected soil properties and yield components of common bean. A field experiment was conducted at three sites in southern Ethiopia, under two consecutive cropping season (2021 and 2022). The experiment was conducted using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatments included three levels of inorganic fertilizer (Triple Superphosphate, TSP), applied at 0, 42.5, and 85 kg TSP ha⁻1 for Kokate; 0, 29, and 58 kg TSP ha⁻1 for Hawassa; and 0, 35.5, and 71 kg TSP ha⁻1 for Alage, tailored to the specific conditions of each site. Additionally, the experiment incorporated three levels of organic inputs 0, 5 t biochar ha⁻1, and 5 t compost ha⁻1 as well as Rhizobium inoculation (HB-429) applied at 500 g ha⁻1. These treatments were designed to assess the combined effects of inorganic, organic and biofertilizers on soil health and crop performance. Results showed that the integrated application of inorganic, and organic fertilizers significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved soil pH, soil organic carbon, and available P compared with the sole fertilizer application plots. Similarly, the integrated use of inorganic, organic and biofertilizers increased nodule numbers, seed weight, grain yield, and biomass yield. We also found that 23 and 24 % higher grain yield were achieved with integrated applications of TSP fertilizer with compost on Hawassa and Alage sites than sole inorganic fertilizer application. On the other hand, the integrated application of TSP fertilizer with biochar increased by 18 % grain yield on Kokate over the sole application of inorganic fertilizer. The highest economic benefit of 69,460 and 63,250 ETB was obtained from the integrated application of TSP fertilizer with compost at Hawassa and Alage sites, respectively. The highest economic benefit for the Kokate site was 53,583 ETB at TSP fertilizer with biochar application. Overall, the study confirms that site-specific integrated soil fertility management appears to be a prerequisite for sustainable and profitable common bean production over sole fertilizer application in southern Ethiopia.

Biochemical Defense Arsenal, Genes/QTLs and Transcripts for Imparting Anthracnose Resistance in Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Anthracnose (ANT), caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, is the most devastating disease affecting common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), leading to significant yield losses in the Western Himalayas. The study provides a comprehensive understanding of ANT resistance via trait phenotyping, biochemical profiling, genome-wide association studies (GWASs), and RNA sequencing. The assessment of bean association mapping panel in different environments revealed a diverse spectrum of resistance levels. Biochemical analysis revealed distinctive defense responses against ANT infection among different genotypes. GWAS approach identified 24 significant marker‒trait associations (MTAs) distributed across all 11 bean chromosomes. Notably, 03 MTAs (BMr205, BMr269 and BMr244) present on chromosome Pv07 were validated for ANT, and the remaining MTAs were novel MTAs for ANT. Transcriptome sequencing of resistant (PBG-3) and susceptible (PBG-26) genotypes under mock and 120-hour post inoculation conditions revealed key differentially expressed genes, such as leucine-rich repeat domain-containing protein (PHAVU_007G087700g), NB-ARC domain-containing protein (PHAVU_003G002500g) and transcription factors pivotal for disease resistance. The expression patterns of four genes (PHAVU_007G087700g, PHAVU_003G002500g, PHAVU_007G056100g and PHAVU_003G003000g) were validated through quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT‒PCR). Furthermore, the integration of GWAS-identified candidate genes with transcriptomics and cross-referencing with previous studies validated overlapping regions and common candidate genes, enriching our understanding of the genetic basis of ANT resistance. Therefore, the results offer a holistic perspective on ANT resistance in common bean, providing a foundation for targeted breeding efforts. The identified potential candidate genes and associated pathways will contribute valuable insights into the development of ANT resistant common bean varieties.

Deletion of Mgat2 in spermatogonia blocks spermatogenesis.

Identifying factors required for spermatogenesis is important for understanding mechanisms of male fertility. Inactivation of either the Mgat1 or Man2a2 gene leads to a block in spermatogenesis causing infertility in male mice. MGAT1 GlcNAc-transferase initiates complex N-glycan synthesis and MAN2A2 mannosidase generates the substrate for MGAT2 GlcNAc-transferase to form a biantennary complex N-glycan. In this paper, we show that conditional deletion of Mgat2 in spermatogonia via Stra8-iCre caused a novel block in spermatogenesis, largely prior to the formation of round spermatids. Mgat2[-/-] germ cells did not bind the lectins Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin (L-PHA) or Griffonia simplicifolia II (GSA-II), similar to germ cells lacking MGAT1 and complex N-glycans. However, overall spermatogenic defects were distinct in germ cells with deleted Mgat2 versus Mgat1. In addition, RNA-seq analysis at 15 days after birth revealed a unique transcriptomic landscape in Mgat2[-/-] germ cells with genes required for sperm formation and functions being most downregulated. Bioinformatic analyses using the ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) algorithm identified ERK and AKT as central activities. Western blot analyses of 15-day germ cell lysates confirmed that both AKT and ERK1/2 signaling were increased by loss of MGAT2 in germ cells. By contrast, Mgat1[-/-] germ cells were previously shown to have reduced ERK signaling and unchanged AKT activity. Therefore, since the loss of all complex N-glycans is common to each mutant model, the different immature N-glycans that accumulate in Mgat2[-/-] versus Mgat1[-/-] germ cells are proposed to be the basis of their unique spermatogenic phenotypes.