Use Of Greywater Research Articles

Establishing grassland mixtures on mine wastes – a two-year mesocosm study

Plant growth on mine wastes is restricted by the lack of water, nutrients, phytotoxic responses and the absence of a seedbank. In a mesocosm study, we addressed the establishment of vegetation on metalliferous mine wastes from two seed mixtures. Besides the composition of the vegetation and the increase in plant cover and biomass over time, we studied concentrations of heavy metals in the shoot and analyzed the quantity of throughflow, its pH and EC to follow pollutant discharge. We hypothesized that the types of mine wastes and sown grasslands will affect species composition and the formation of a protective plant cover. Our platform was well-suited to study build-up and succession of a vegetation layer and its potential to stabilize mine wastes. However, the establishing community was less diverse than expected. The dilution of wastes increased species number and biomass, and we found a reduction of material discharge with increasing vegetation cover. Over time, drainage was reduced, while pH of the throughflow did not change. However, it was higher under the addition of greywater. Interestingly, the use of greywater led to a higher biomass in one mixture and slight changes in the chemistry of the throughflow and the plant matter.

Modelling Possible Household Uses of Grey Water in Poland using Property Fitting Analysis

One of the most important methods of optimising water consumption is grey water recycling. From a technological point of view, the treatment of grey water guarantees that it can be reused for domestic or corporate purposes, but it raises the issue of the social acceptance of the use of such water. This study aimed to assess the possibility of using grey water in households in Poland. The originality of this research study lies in the application of the PROFIT method for the separate construction of models of the benefits of grey water according to user groups. Four groups were identified, differentiated by gender and age; age and possession of an irretrievable water meter; gender and place of residence; place of residence and possession of an irretrievable water meter. To answer the formulated research questions, a diagnostic survey method was used, in which 807 randomly selected respondents from all over Poland were surveyed. The results of the survey indicate that homeowners perceive the potential use of grey water as beneficial, pointing most often to the following factors: rebuilding groundwater levels, reduced extraction of drinking water from rivers and other water bodies, and increased vegetation growth. On the other hand, they are concerned about the need to reconstruct the existing water and sewerage systems in order to produce drinking water from grey water as well as about the high cost and parameter stability of drinking water produced from grey water. Furthermore, men and older people attribute less importance to measures related to the introduction of good practices based on the reuse of recycled water in water management. Women, on the other hand, appreciate almost all opportunities to use grey water to a greater extent than men.

From drainage to resource: a practice approach to reuse greywater for household irrigation purposes

Abstract The United Nations indicates that available freshwater resources will decrease significantly due to pollution growth and urbanization; two-thirds of the world's population may face water shortages by 2030. Extended use of greywater is an alternative option for reducing potable water consumption in urban areas. Recently, the reuse of treated greywater for home gardens, peri-urban agriculture, and landscaping has become a widespread concern in many developing countries. This paper presents a study on a low-cost system that can perform greywater treatment for household use. This treatment system employed physical filtration by ceramic filters, quartz gravel, hollow fiber membrane, and UV disinfection. Three greywater samples collected from the kitchen, washing basins, and bathroom were investigated. The operation process determines the system's effectiveness by considering turbidity, coliform, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) concentration of the inlet and outlet water. As a result, high removal efficiency (i.e., >60%) could be obtained for each investigated parameter. Results also showed that grey water generated from washing basins has the highest potential for reuse since the water quality after treatment satisfies the water reuse standards for household irrigation. The findings encourage further exploration and implementation of greywater reuse practices.

Rainwater and Greywater as Alternative Water Resources: Public Perception and Acceptability. Case Study in Twelve Countries in the World

The aim of the paper was to identify factors that influence the public perception of the possibility of replacing tap water with rainwater or greywater. In order to check whether a geographical location and water resources of a region affect the public's attitude toward alternative water systems, the surveys were carried out among respondents from twelve countries. The surveys identified the level of awareness among respondents about their country's water resources, ways to save water at home, and their attitudes to rainwater and greywater as additional sources of water in a building. The results showed that only 39% of respondents would not be afraid to use treated greywater in their household. The situation was better in case of replacement of tap water with rainwater, where more than 54% of the respondents were not concerned. The use of alternative sources of water for body washing and cleaning works was the biggest concern among the respondents. In case of greywater recycling, this was indicated by 56% (personal hygiene) and 34% (cleaning works) of respondents. People in the countries with low water resources view alternative water sources more favourably. They are also more aware of, and more likely to accept the use of rainwater or greywater even in uses where they will come into contact with the human body. The research also showed that for more than 3/4 of respondents, funding to install these systems would encourage their use in their household.

Research on the status of the irrigation and drainage network in Iran based on the viewpoint of water users and experts using SWOT analysis

AbstractIn many arid and semi‐arid regions, such as Iran, traditional irrigation systems consume a large proportion of surface water and groundwater resources. In the last few decades, due to the undesirable effects of climate change and continuous drought, many studies have been conducted on reducing threatening factors using the capacity of irrigation and drainage networks and participating water users in irrigation management. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of the irrigation and drainage network of the Varamin Plain using the SWOT model that is an analytical model used based on the results of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the subject, considering the cooperative management of water users. In addition to conducting interviews, a questionnaire was used to collect data from two groups of network water users and experts. According to the results, the farmers and water users of the network are in a relatively good situation in terms of access to water, possibly due to the available three annual planting seasons (due to the existence of irrigation and the drainage network and the use of grey water, conditions for irrigation and crop cultivation are available in four seasons of the year). The most critical concerns of the water users were the lack of knowledge about the organization of water collectors, the inconsistency among governmental organizations and the insignificant action of the Agricultural Jihad Organization (a government ministry in Iran to advance agricultural goals and all related matters) in solving issues related to water rights. Failure to inform the users about the costs of creating network infrastructure, maintaining facilities and canals, not accepting water shortage conditions and the state of groundwater resources, consecutive cropping seasons throughout the year, cultivation of crops with high water demand, people with political and social influence obtaining excess water rights, and the lack of coordination among related governmental policies were the most critical concerns of the experts.

Greywater irrigation and soil quality: An assessment framework adjustment and application

The on-site use of greywater is increasingly popular for alleviating water stress in various parts of the world, particularly as a water source for irrigation. However, greywater can contain a range of pathogenic bacteria that may compromise public health as well as substances with the potential to induce environmental consequences, such as soil hydrophobicity, accumulation of salts, and damage to plants. While the health issues are being addressed by greywater legislation, its environmental risks are largely ignored. Therefore, the main objective of the current study was to quantify the impacts of greywater irrigation on soils by developing a soil quality index (SQI) using a 14-month planter experiment. The sum of the absolute value of all indicator scores represents the final score of the integrated SQI, which ranges from 0 to 100. Three threshold values were used: <30 represents deteriorated soil quality, 50–70 indicates intermediate quality, and >70 represents optimal quality. The results based on the planter experiment revealed that, after 14 months, the SQI of all raw greywater-irrigated soils was lower than 70, indicating soil functions and plant health might be compromised. The use of scoring functions was a useful tool for quantifying and comparing the effects of greywater irrigation on different soil quality indicators. Integration of all indicator scores into a single SQI quantifies and summarizes the overall beneficial and detrimental effects of greywater irrigation. However, for better understanding and management decisions, SQI scores should be used and interpreted in conjunction with the scores of the single indicators constituting the index. In our experiment, treated ​greywater ​did ​not compromise ​soil quality even after 14 months of irrigation. As such, based on the fact that irrigation with raw greywater might compromise soil quality, treatinggreywater prior to its use is recommended.

Use of Domestic Greywater for Hydroponic Farming: A Review

Use of Domestic Greywater for Hydroponic Farming: A Review

Stabilization Tank with Respect to Detention Time for Grey Water Treatment

Abstract: Characterization and treatment of grey water; options for (re)use. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. Addressing the issues of water shortage and appropriate sanitation in Jordan, domestic grey water treatment receives growing interest. Grey water comprises the domestic wastewater flows excluding waters associated with the toilet. The topics of concern for grey water are its characteristics, treatment and potentials for use after treatment. The target of this thesis is to develop a concept for treating grey water on-site for agricultural usage, thus sustaining a recycling process of grey water in Jordan. A review was made regarding the currently available grey water treatment technologies. In addition, grey water was quantitatively and qualitatively characterized, and then grey water reuse requirements including treatment, were analyzed. Biodegradability and biodegradation rates of the grey water were investigated for selecting appropriate design and operation criteria of the treatment technology to be developed. A low-tech semi-technical scale treatment system was tested to treat grey water discharges from a dormitory at the Jordan University campus. The treatment system was evaluated on obtained removal efficiencies and conformity of the effluent to the guidelines for the use of reclaimed water for irrigation in Jordan. Finally, the objectives, approaches and the results of each chapter are summarized, and then both the results and the potential of applying decentralized sanitation and reuse (DeSaR) concepts in Jordan are discussed. Results show that storage and treatment are prerequisites for any type of grey water use. Grey water is aerobically and anaerobically biodegradable but the conversion rates are low. The core of the treatment concept consists of an integrated storage and anaerobic treatment unit, fed with a natural influent flow pattern, in a down-flow mode, up to a one day operational cycle, i.e. a variable HRT ≤ 24 hours. The second step consists of an aerobic post-treatment, mechanically aerated in a down-flow mode and a one day operational cycle, i.e. 24 hours HRT. Both units need insulation in the winter period. The final effluent, stable in winter and summer, meets the Jordanian

Appraisal of community awareness of water conservation and the importance of greywater as one of the solutions to reduce water wastage in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia depends mainly on desalinating seawater for its potable water needs due to the scarcity of natural water resources such as rainwater, rivers and lakes. With the high cost involved in the water desalination process and the state bearing a high percentage of these costs, it becomes a great necessity for the general community to be aware of the importance of water conservation. Reusing grey water in agriculture, industry, or even for potable water production has become an acceptable solution in many countries. Greywater reclamation and reuse have long been considered a favored strategy to overcome severe water scarcity in arid countries such as Saudi Arabia. However, the success of greywater reuse is highly dependent on end users accepting its consumption. This study aims to measure Saudi society’s awareness of the importance of water conservation and their knowledge and acceptance of the use of greywater. A comprehensive questionnaire was developed and distributed to 733 participants, of different age groups and qualifications, from different regions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The results reveal that there is a clear lack of knowledge about water scarcity in Saudi Arabia as well as the potential use of greywater among the participants. According to the results, the majority of participants welcome the use of greywater for domestic purposes if it is economical. Finally, the paper recommends that more efforts be made to create awareness about the importance of greywater in the country and water conservation. Due to the lack of detailed research on greywater reuse and the extent to which Saudi society accepts this idea, this research becomes relevant in the present context

Appraisal of community awareness of water conservation and the importance of greywater as one of the solutions to reduce water wastage in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia depends mainly on desalinating seawater for its potable water needs due to the scarcity of natural water resources such as rainwater, rivers and lakes. With the high cost involved in the water desalination process and the state bearing a high percentage of these costs, it becomes a great necessity for the general community to be aware of the importance of water conservation. Reusing grey water in agriculture, industry, or even for potable water production has become an acceptable solution in many countries. Greywater reclamation and reuse have long been considered a favored strategy to overcome severe water scarcity in arid countries such as Saudi Arabia. However, the success of greywater reuse is highly dependent on end users accepting its consumption. This study aims to measure Saudi society’s awareness of the importance of water conservation and their knowledge and acceptance of the use of greywater. A comprehensive questionnaire was developed and distributed to 733 participants, of different age groups and qualifications, from different regions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The results reveal that there is a clear lack of knowledge about water scarcity in Saudi Arabia as well as the potential use of greywater among the participants. According to the results, the majority of participants welcome the use of greywater for domestic purposes if it is economical. Finally, the paper recommends that more efforts be made to create awareness about the importance of greywater in the country and water conservation. Due to the lack of detailed research on greywater reuse and the extent to which Saudi society accepts this idea, this research becomes relevant in the present context

Greywater as a Future Sustainable Energy and Water Source: Bibliometric Mapping of Current Knowledge and Strategies

The use of greywater reduces the consumption of many resources and is an effective tool for achieving Sustainable Development Goals. In order to assess the rationality of its use as an alternative source of energy and water in buildings, a holistic literature review was carried out based on a bibliometric analysis of publications in these fields. The main bibliographic source was the Web of Science database. This review contributed to a better understanding of the analyzed research field. It also revealed trends in greywater energy recovery and recycling research, indicating that these are developing fields. In recent years, there has been a marked increase in the number of publications on the most popular ways of using greywater in buildings, with the territorial scope of research carried out in the greywater recycling domain being considerably larger than research on greywater energy recovery. The analysis revealed poor cooperation between different universities, especially in the field of greywater energy recovery. In light of previous literature reviews, some important research gaps and further proposals for future research were also identified. They concern, in particular, the simultaneous use of greywater as an alternative source of energy and water. Together with the findings of other researchers and people related to the subject matter, this review can contribute to the further development of greywater energy recovery systems and greywater recycling systems.

Public attitude towards graywater reuse: Gaza Strip as a case study

The use of graywater in households has become increasing popular. Socio-economic aspects of graywater vary from one place to another and they need to be investigated in order to predict whether graywater use can be accepted by people. The aim of this study is to investigate the social response in the Gaza Strip, Palestine, toward the reuse of graywater in households. Results of 511 surveys among residents of the Gaza Strip revealed that about 84% of the interviewed people accepted the idea of using graywater. Knowing that installing a graywater system would cost about USD500.00 per family, people reversed their acceptance of 84% and the rejection rate reached about 90%. The situation returned back to the 84% acceptance rate when it was known that the cost paid by the resident would only be USD50.00, with the rest of the cost to be contributed by non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The study also revealed that water outage seemed to be the most compelling reason behind the feeling of having a water problem, which is encouraging for the future of graywater use because graywater can be a good alternative during times of water outage.

A review of untreated household greywater quality to inform the water saving–risk trade-off in South Africa

Interest in greywater reuse is increasing in South Africa, because of the potential to supplement scarce freshwater resources in the face of increasing demand and aridity. This paper aims to inform the water saving–risk trade-off associated with residential untreated greywater use, through a statistical analysis of greywater quality results as sourced from prior South African studies. Greywater sources included in this review were the bathroom, kitchen, laundry, mixed and general residential sources. Variability in terms of each of the reported physical, chemical and microbiological constituents by source and between result sets was noted. Statistically significant differences were evident between the pH, conductivity and phosphorus values of certain sources. A risk assessment undertaken for each of the constituents revealed further variability. The constituent with the highest number of high-risk samples was total dissolved solids. The relatively high risk and negative consequences in greywater practices in terms of public health, the environment, and infrastructure, given this variability, provide insight into the trade-off with potential water savings. It is recommended that a more nuanced view of the potential potable savings associated with greywater reuse and also improved risk management is required by the user.

Photocatalytic degradation of antibiotics under various conditions

Frequent detection of antibiotics in aquatic environment represents a global ecologic problem due to the fact, that these compounds are not fully biodegradable during conventional purification processes in wastewater treatment plants. The presence of antibiotics cause that the bacteria present in water and in animal or human bodies build resistance, which can be problematic for treatment of infections. However, heterogeneous photocatalysis is a promising method for the removal of harmful organic pollutants from wastewater. In this work, a reaction rate of photocatalytic degradation of sulfathiazole was determined, using TiO2 nanopowders and TiO2 EPD layers. In the next step, the effect of the additional antibiotic presence (ampicillin) and the use of greywater as a matrix on the photocatalytic reaction was evaluated. Sulfathiazole and ampicillin were photocatalytically degraded both separately and in mixture. For the photocatalytic reactions, nanoparticles of TiO2 P25 and pure anatase in two particle sizes (5 and 100 nm) were used. The photocatalysts were added into the reaction mixture both as a free powder and immobilized by electrophoretic deposition (EPD) on stainless steel plates. The degradation kinetics was determined by HPLC analysis with UV detection. The decrease in organic carbon was monitored using a TOC instrument. Theoretical degradation products were determined by DFT calculations. Firstly, the convenience of using EPD layers was evaluated. It is necessary to filtrate or centrifuge the samples after using TiO2 suspensions, which is time and money consuming. Thus, EDP layers have a more practical use for water purification purposes. The reaction rates were comparable with both suspension and EPD photocatalysts. When sulfathiazole (10-4 M) was degraded, the reaction rate was highest with P25, followed by anatase 5 nm and anatase 100 nm. The use of EPD layers instead of free powder photocatalyst had no significant effect on the reaction rate. Furthermore, the use of immobilized photocatalyst solves problems with separating the photocatalyst from the reaction mixture after the degradation is completed. The addition of ampicillin to the reaction did not have any influence on the rate of degradation of sulfathiazole when the molar concentration was kept constant. The use of greywater instead of demineralized water for the experiments had no decreasing effect on the photocatalytic degradation of both sulfathiazole and ampicillin. The mineralization of the reaction mixture determined as a decrease in total organic carbon correlated with the results of decrease in the concentration of studied analytes. When greywater was used instead of demineralized water, it had no observable effect. In this work, the photocatalytic degradation of sulfathiazole was performed using three different TiO2 forms. The photocatalytic activity of the particles in suspensions was compared with the activity of the particles deposited on the layers. Then, the photocatalytic reaction of the solution containing the mixture of two antibiotics in demineralized water and in greywater was carried out and the mineralization under the conditions mentioned above was compared.

Evaluation of the multifunctionality of a vertical greening system using different irrigation strategies on cooling, plant development and greywater use

Vertical greening systems (VGS) are implemented in the building envelope to address challenges such as the urban heat island effect, energy reduction, air purification, support of biodiversity and recently greywater treatment (wastewater without urine and faeces) for reuse purposes. In this context, providing and using treated wastewater is a crucial point, as generally VGS are irrigated with tap water and thereby increase urban water depletion and pollution. In this study, we evaluate the multifunctionality of a pot-based VGS irrigated with untreated greywater and capable, as well, of acting as a greywater treatment system. The full-scale experimental system uses a low-tech irrigation technique and was investigated for different irrigation water volumes to identify the needed water demand to maximize local cooling by evapotranspiration and suitable plants for the different water conditions and water types. Plant development and greywater treatment capabilities were monitored from April 2020 until September 2021. Based on the highest irrigation volume, a local air temperature reduction of up to 3.4 °C was measured. The removal efficiencies for treating greywater were COD 80 %, TOC 74 %, TNb 70 %, NH4-N 81 % and Turbidity 79 %, respectively, and showed a decrease in the second year of operation. Therefore, the results support the need to develop more robust systems, since up to now mainly short-term experiments have been reported in literature.

Yeast supplementation alleviates the negative effects of greywater irrigation on lettuce and maize

Water scarcity has led to increased use of wastewater, particularly greywater, for crop irrigation. This study investigated whether the addition of yeast can alleviate the potential negative effects of greywater use on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). Seeds and seedlings were treated with 4 concentrations (0.005; 0.01; 0.015 and 0.020 g‧mL−1) of yeast-treated tapwater (YTW) and greywater (YGW). Tapwater (TW) and greywater (GW) without yeast served as controls. In general, an increase in yeast concentration compromised seed germination in Petri dishes, but improved germination in soil. Tapwater was more effective than GW in promoting germination and growth in both species. Lower concentrations of yeast generally increased germination capacity in both species compared to the controls. Total biomass, number of leaves, chlorophyll content, leaf area, photosynthetic rate and maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) were significantly higher in yeast treatments in both species, compared with the controls. Biomass accumulation, total leaf area, chlorophyll content and photosynthesis were higher in YGW than controls and YTW. Differences in biomass allocation between treatments may be due to changes in soil moisture, pH and electrical conductivity of the soil caused by yeast supplementation. This study showed that plants treated with YGW performed better than those treated with YTW and without yeast. Yeast supplementation of greywater could increase water recycling and provide a cheap bio-fertilizer to home growers, whilst significantly improving yield in both species. This innovative approach may enhance water and food security of subsistence farmers in rural areas.

Beyond Traditional Energy Sector Coupling: Conserving and Efficient Use of Local Resources

Decentralisation and sector coupling are becoming increasingly crucial for the decarbonisation of the energy system. Resources such as waste and water have high energy recovery potential and are required as inputs for various conversion technologies; however, waste and water have not yet been considered in sector coupling approaches but only in separate examinations. In this work, an open-source sector coupling optimisation model considering all of these resources and their utilisation is developed and applied in a test-bed in an Israeli city. Our investigations include an impact assessment of energy recovery and resource utilisation in the transition to a hydrogen economy, with regard to the inclusion of greywater and consideration of emissions. Additionally, sensitivity analyses are performed in order to assess the complexity level of energy recovery. The results demonstrate that waste and water energy recovery can provide high contributions to energy generation. Furthermore, greywater use can be vital to cover the water demands in scarcity periods, thus saving potable water and enabling the use of technology. Regarding the transition to hydrogen technologies, resource energy recovery and management have an even higher effect than in the original setup. However, without appropriate resource management, a reduction in emissions cannot be achieved. Furthermore, the sensitivity analyses indicate the existence of complex relationships between energy recovery technologies and other energy system operations.

Usage of treated greywater as an alternative irrigation source for tomatoes cultivation

AbstractOptimizing water reuse is an important issue in the context of water scarcity and low water quality. Greywater would provide more sustainable water supply, once using appropriate treatment. This study aimed to appraise the efficacy of treated greywater (TGW) use on soil and tomato cultivation, in comparison with ground water (GW) use. Greywater (from laundry and tableware) was treated using a wetland mini‐reactor with a horizontal underground flow. Growth, photosynthetic activity, plant water status, osmotic potential and yield of tomato cultivars (Dart and Firenze) were evaluated. Sodium, potassium (analysed by flame photometer) and heavy metals (examined by atomic absorption photometer) were quantified in leaves, stems and roots. Results showed that TGW does not affect soil salinity. The TGW improved plant height and yield, of both cultivars. Although net photosynthesis increased only in Dart whereas Firenze had elevated water potential, less relative water content and photosynthetic water use efficiency suggesting a pronounced water restriction. Also, Firenze had higher Zn2+ and Fe2+ content than Dart indicating less selectivity. Our results imply that greywater treatment had an encouraging potential for soil preservation and tomatoes irrigation. Plant resistance is possibly acquired by ionic balance and photosynthetic capacity. Further studies are desirable to inspect long‐term effects on soil and health.

Water Footprint of Table Grape Production Systems: A Review of South African and Global Studies

Being a water-scarce country, South Africa (SA) faces several water challenges, including drought and other effects of climate change. Therefore, there is a need to improve water-use efficiency (WUE) by accurately quantifying the water use and WUE of table grape vineyards. The objective of this review is to (i) provide an overview of water footprint (WF) studies conducted on table grape production systems in SA and globally; (ii) identify limitations in current WF assessments of table grape production systems; and (iii) establish a range of WF values for table grape production systems as an indicator of WUE and for use in decision-making regarding sustainable freshwater use. The review has demonstrated that only a limited number of detailed WF studies have been undertaken on table grapes in SA and globally. Region-specific lookup tables for quantifying blue, green and grey water use in table grape production systems are available for three table grape production regions of SA and could be used for future WF assessments. Most global studies conducted on grape WF and WUE were desktop studies and did not include actual field records from production units, nor did they distinguish between different grape types (table, raisin and wine grapes). WF values must be interpreted in context, specifically regarding the water used versus yield, quality and income, as well as the region, climatic conditions, soil characteristics, irrigation and cultivation practices. For future WF and WUE assessments, a more detailed breakdown of water use is recommended, both during the production process and postharvest.

Framework Proposal for Achieving Smart and Sustainable Societies (S3)

This article introduces a Smart and Sustainable Societies (S3) framework, based on what is necessary to achieve the UN agenda by 2030. The proposed model is based on the integration of three smart strategies: (1) water provision that consists of the use of greywater and rainwater; (2) sanitation provision that comprises the nutrients recovery from excreta and organic solid waste and; (3) resource-oriented agriculture that conceives the use of the water provision system for the production of food with the use of nutrients recovered from the sanitation system. The S3 framework has the potential to increase the well-being, human development, water availability, food safety, poverty alleviation, and healthy environments of societies through the provision of safely managed basic services as well as the recycling of nutrients and water to achieve sustainability at household and community levels.