Gray Wolf Canis Lupus Research Articles

Genetic Identification of Putative Hybrids Between Grey Wolf and Golden Jackal

We describe the results of genetic analysis of 11 phenotypically deviant individuals of grey wolf (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) sensu lato collected in Voronezh State Nature Biosphere Reserve (Chernozem zone of European Russia) and Dagestan (Northern Caucasus, Russia) putatively identified morphologically as hybrids between grey wolf and golden jackal (Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758). By means of maternally inherited mtDNA (sequences of cytochrome b gene fragment) and paternal lineage markers ZfY no F1 wolf-jackal hybrids were identified. As well, possibility of classification of the studied individuals to next generation hybrids from crosses between different wolf-jackal F1s. However, attribution of these animals to complex hybrids such as various backcrosses cannot be rejected. From the results of analysis by a set of autosomal microsatellite loci we putatively diagnosed a single F2 hybrid. As well, we obtained data that can be considered as traces of hybridization between wolf and jackal in southern regions of European Russa, albeit direct indications of introgression between these species not found. At the same time, the results of both genetic and craniological studies could be interpreted as indication to hybridization between wolves and domestic dogs on the same territories.

Wolf population density: prey biomass limits via intrinsic factors

Whether gray wolf Canis lupus population density is limited intrinsically or extrinsically has occupied researchers for decades. Since 1983, prey biomass, an extrinsic factor, has been accepted as limiting, but that conclusion was recently challenged for unusually high wolf densities which were then said to be limited by behavioral, or intrinsic, factors such as intraspecific strife, dispersal, etc., below prey‐biomass constraints. That contention has been disputed, so disagreement remains. This article discusses the models involved, presents revised models that shed new light, and offers evidence that supports the conclusion that at least at densities below 79 wolves 1000 km−2, wolf numbers per area are limited by prey biomass. As wolf density increases, behavioral factors limit the density to the number of wolves the prey biomass will support. Extra wolves disperse, and wolf range expands. Thus, while wolf density is self‐limiting, the population is not.

Predictors of carnivore tolerance among census-designated and self-identified rural and urban residents in Idaho, USA

ABSTRACT Carnivore tolerance is a common management goal in a rapidly changing Intermountain West. In recent decades, Idaho and other states with historically rural populations now contain highly urbanized regions. Given known tolerance differences between rural and urban populations and increased urbanization, residents may self-identify as rural but reside in a Census-designated urban area. To explore differences between Census-designated and self-reported residency, a stratified random sample of Idaho residents was used to estimate mountain lion (Puma concolor) and gray wolf (Canis lupus) tolerance based on past wildlife experience, perceived carnivore risk, and emotional response. Regression analyses indicated statistically significant models; risk, experience, and negative emotions were significant predictors of tolerance with observed variation among objective and subjective residency segments. Findings suggest Census-designated and self-identified residency may be a consideration to effectively diagnose and manage human–carnivore interaction issues in states with shifting rural–urban demographics.

Sociodemographic correlates of fear-related attitudes toward the wolf (Canis lupus lupus). A survey in southeastern Norway

The recent increase in the grey wolf Canis lupus population in Norway has led to an intense debate about the management of this species. A telephone survey of fear-related attitudes toward the wolf was conducted in four counties in south eastern Norway. 52% claimed that they not at all, or to a small degree, would become concerned about their own or their family’s safety when being outdoors if wolves were living in their area, while 31% said they clearly would become more concerned. 36% of the sample expressed that they definitely would become more careful when walking in the fields and forest, 25% partly agreed to this, while 38% said they would not become more careful. 25% said they were very much afraid of wolves, 30% were somewhat afraid, while 43% were not afraid at all. Generally, women, the elderly, persons with short education, and rural inhabitants expressed more negative, fear-related attitudes than did other sociodemographic groups. Parents with young children expressed more fear of wolves compared to equally old parents without children at home, but this finding applied only to residents in the city. People who had a dog in their household were less afraid of wolves than those who did not have a dog; this applied only to rural residents. In general, the level of self-reported fear and concern equals what has been found in Sweden and Finland, but the attitudes found in Norwegian rural areas were more negative than attitudes of rural residents in Sweden. The results are discussed on the background of evolutionary/genetic, cultural, and political influences.

Evolutionary divergence of facial muscle physiology between domestic dogs and wolves.

Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are descended from gray wolf (Canis lupus) populations that inhabited Western Europe and Siberia. The specific timing of dog domestication is debated, but archeological and genetic evidence suggest that it was a multi-phase process that began at least 15,000 years ago. There are many morphological differences between dogs and wolves, including marked divergence in facial muscle morphology, but we know little about the comparative physiology of these muscles. A better understanding of comparative facial muscle physiology between domestic dogs and gray wolves would improve our conceptual framework for the processual mechanisms in dog domestication. To address these issues, we assessed the myosin profiles (type I and type II) from the zygomaticus and orbicularis oris muscles of 6 domestic dogs and 4 gray wolves. Due to small sample sizes, statistical analyses were not done. Results reveal that sampled domestic dogs have almost 100% fast-twitch (type II) muscle fibers while gray wolves have less than 50%, meaning that dog faces can contract fast while wolf faces are able to sustain facial muscle contraction. Sample sizes are limited but the present study indicates that dog domestication is associated with not only a change in facial muscle morphology but a concomitant change in how these muscles function physiologically. Selective pressures in the development of communication between dogs and humans using facial expression may have influenced this evolutionary divergence, but the paedomorphic retention of barking in adult dogs may have also played a role.

Estimating the Effective Size of European Wolf Populations.

Molecular methods are routinely used to estimate the effective size of populations (N e). However, underlying model assumptions are frequently violated to an unknown extent. Although simulations can detect sources of bias and help to adjust sampling strategies and analyses methods, additional information from empirical data can also be used to calibrate methods and improve molecular N e estimation methods. Here, we take advantage of long-term genetic and ecological monitoring data of the grey wolf (Canis lupus) in Germany, and detailed population genetic studies in Poland, Spain and Portugal to improve N e estimation strategies in this species, and species with similar life history traits. We first calculated N e from average lifetime reproductive success and detailed census data from the German population, which served as a baseline to compare to molecular estimates based on linkage disequilibrium and sibship frequency. This yielded a robust N e/N c estimation that we used to calibrate molecular estimates of German, Polish and Iberian wolf populations. The linkage disequilibrium method was strongly influenced by spatial genetic structure, much more than the sibship frequency method. When N e was estimated in local neighbourhoods, both methods yielded comparable results. Estimates of the metapopulation effective size seemed to correspond generally well with the sum of the estimates of local neighbourhoods. Overall, we found that the number of packs is a good proxy of the effective population size. Using this as a rule of thumb, we evaluated for all European wolf populations the N e 500 indicator and concluded that half of the European wolf populations do not yet fulfil this criterion.

Applying Reiss’ expectancy theory to locals’ perceptions of a potential red wolf reintroduction to Ozark National Forest, AR

ABSTRACT Although perceptions of risk related to wildlife have been well-studied, little research has evaluated the root causes of these perceived risks. Using a semi-structured instrument, we interviewed 20 interested parties who reside and/or recreate near Ozark National Forest, Arkansas, to explore perceptions of a potential red wolf (Canis rufus) reintroduction to the region. We employed Reiss’ (1991) expectancy theory to identify cause and effect relationships between previous conditioning events interested parties had experienced (i.e. sensitivities) and perceived risks related to the reintroduction (i.e. expectancies). We found respondents drew parallels to previous events including the red wolf reintroduction to North Carolina, other wildlife reintroductions in Arkansas, gray wolf (Canis lupus) reintroductions in Yellowstone National Park, and conflicts with other wildlife in Arkansas, where distrust for wildlife agencies underpinned these experiences. Based on our findings, we recommend agencies preemptively build trust and practice clear and frequent communication among interested parties when reintroductions are being considered.

A global assessment of large terrestrial carnivore kill rates.

Through killing and instilling fear in their prey, large terrestrial carnivores shape the structure and function of ecosystems globally. Most large carnivore species have experienced severe range and population declines due to human activities, and many are now threatened with extinction. Consequently, the impacts of these predators on food webs have been diminished or lost completely from many ecosystems. Kill rates provide a fundamental metric for understanding large carnivore ecology and assessing and comparing predation within and across ecological communities. Our systematic review of large terrestrial mammalian carnivore kill rates reveals significant positive geographic (North America, Europe, and Africa) and taxonomic (grey wolf Canis lupus, puma Puma concolor, lion Panthera leo, and Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx) bias, with most studies apparently motivated by human-carnivore conflict over access to ungulate prey and wildlife management objectives. Our current understanding of the behaviour and functional roles of many large carnivore species and populations thus remains limited. By synthesising and comparing kill rates, we show that solitary carnivores (e.g. brown bears Ursus arctos and most felids) exhibit higher per capita kill rates than social carnivores. However, ungulate predation by bears is typically limited to predation of neonates during a short period. Lower per capita kill rates by social carnivores suggests group living significantly reduces energetic demands, or, alternatively, that group-living carnivores defend and consume a greater proportion of large prey carcasses, or may acquire more food through other means (e.g. scavenging, kleptoparasitism) than solitary hunters. Kill and consumption rates for Canidae - measured as kilograms of prey per kilogram of carnivore per day - are positively correlated with body mass, consistent with increasing energy costs associated with a cursorial hunting strategy. By contrast, ambush predators such as felids show an opposite trend, and thus the potential energetic advantage of an ambush hunting strategy for carnivores as body mass increases. Additionally, ungulate kill rates remain relatively constant across solitary felid body sizes, indicative of energetic constraints and optimal foraging. Kill rate estimates also reveal potential insights into trophic structuring within carnivore guilds, with subordinate carnivores often killing more than their larger counterparts, which may be indicative of having to cope with food losses to scavengers and dominant competitors. Subordinate carnivores may thus serve an important role in provisioning food to other trophic levels within their respective ecosystems. Importantly, kill rates also clarify misconceptions around the predatory behaviour of carnivores (e.g. spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta and wolverines Gulo gulo are often considered scavengers rather than the capable hunters that they are) and thus the potential impacts of various carnivore species on their ecological communities. Despite the importance of kill rates in understanding predator-prey interactions, their utility is not widely recognised, and insufficient research limits our ability to fully appreciate and predict the consequences of modified predation regimes, justify current management actions affecting carnivores, or inform effective conservation measures. Together with other important research on predator-prey interactions, robust kill rate studies that address the research deficiencies we highlight will provide a deeper understanding of the foraging behaviours and potential ecosystem impacts of many of the world's carnivores, thus aiding effective conservation and management actions.

The reduction in relative brain size in the domesticated dog is not an evolutionary singularity among the canids.

Domestication has long been considered the most powerful evolutionary engine behind dramatic reductions in brain size in several taxa, and the dog (Canis familiaris) is considered as a typical example that shows a substantial decrease in brain size relative to its ancestor, the grey wolf (Canis lupus). However, to make the case for exceptional evolution of reduced brain size under domestication requires an interspecific approach in a phylogenetic context that can quantify the extent by which domestication reduces brain size in comparison to closely related non-domesticated species responding to different selection factors in the wild. Here, we used a phylogenetic method to identify evolutionary singularities to test if the domesticated dog stands out in terms of relative brain size from other species of canids. We found that the dog does not present unambiguous signature of evolutionary singularity with regard to its small brain size, as the results were sensitive to the considerations about the ancestral trait values upon domestication. However, we obtained strong evidence for the hibernating common raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) being an evolutionary outlier for its brain size. Therefore, domestication is not necessarily an exceptional case concerning evolutionary reductions in brain size in an interspecific perspective.

Grey wolves (Canis lupus) shift selection of anthropogenic landscape features following predator control in the Nearctic boreal forest

Conserving endangered species sometimes involves killing their predators. In the case of Nearctic wolves (Canis lupus), rarely are lethal control measures examined for ancillary effects on predator behaviour or community responses in a before-after design. We examined wolf relative abundance and spatial distribution in a northwestern boreal forest landscape for three years before and after the onset of wolf culling intended to conserve threatened woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). We hypothesized that wolf occurrence would increase with density of anthropogenic features created by landscape development before the cull, but that wolves would avoid anthropogenic features after the cull due to associated mortality risk. We used generalized linear models in an information-theoretic framework to weigh evidence for our hypotheses. Post-control, independent wolf detections decreased to 24 % of pre-cull numbers, but wolves maintained 75 % of their distribution. Pre-control, wolves were positively associated with linear features, presumably for hunting efficiency, but post-cull wolves were negatively associated with these features. Thus, wolf control caused not only a numerical reduction of wolf numbers, but also a functional change in wolf behaviour that could further reduce predation pressure on caribou. However, post cull wolf occurrence was more strongly associated with anthropogenic block features which provide forage for alternate prey, potentially subsidizing their fast recovery. Conservation actions involving predator mortality alter landscape-scale distributions and behaviors of surviving predators, with potential indirect effects for the mammal community.

Harvest of transboundary grey wolves from Yellowstone National Park is largely additive

Abstract Large carnivores are globally threatened due to habitat fragmentation and loss, prey depletion and human exploitation. Human exploitation includes both legal and illegal hunting and trapping. Protected areas can create refugia from hunting and trapping; however, hunting can still threaten wide‐ranging large carnivores when they leave these areas. Large carnivore reintroductions to protected areas are often motivated to restore ecological processes, including wolf reintroduction to Yellowstone National Park (YNP). Determining if harvest is compensatory or additive is essential for informed conservation strategies, as it influences the overall impact on wolf populations and their ecosystems. If harvest was compensatory, then increasing harvest pressure outside YNP should not decrease overall survival for transboundary wolves. Alternatively, if increasing harvest was additive, then increasing harvest pressure outside YNP should decrease overall survival for transboundary wolves. We tested the effects of variable harvest pressure following delisting on the survival of YNP grey wolves (Canis lupus) from 1995 to 2022. We defined three harvest levels: no harvest, harvest with limited quotas and unlimited harvest. We used Cox‐proportional hazards models and cumulative incidence functions to estimate survival rates, factors affecting survival and cause‐specific mortality between these three harvest periods to test predictions of the additive mortality hypothesis. Most harvested wolves that primarily lived in YNP were killed adjacent to the park border. Cox‐proportional hazards models revealed that mortality was highest during years of unlimited harvest during winter outside YNP. Cause‐specific mortality analyses showed that natural mortality from other wolves and harvest were the two leading causes of death, but that harvest mortality had additive effects on wolf mortality. Wolf survival decreased with increased harvest mortality, while natural mortality remained relatively unchanged. Synthesis and applications. High rates of additive harvest mortality of wolves could negatively impact wolf survival in YNP. Harvest mortality of transboundary wolves is additive possibly due to source‐sink dynamics of uneven spatial susceptibility of wolves to harvest mortality across protected area borders, as well as effects of harvest on complex social dynamics of wolves in YNP. Transboundary management of large carnivores is challenging, yet cooperation between agencies is vital for wolf management in and around YNP. Our results support the use of small quota zones surrounding protected areas, that minimize transboundary mortality impacts on large carnivores living primarily inside protected areas.

Prey size reflected in tooth wear: a comparison of two wolf populations from Sweden and Alaska.

Ingesta leaves distinct patterns on mammalian teeth during mastication. However, an unresolved challenge is how to include intraspecific variability into dietary reconstruction and the biomechanical aspects of chewing. Two extant populations of the grey wolf (Canis lupus), one from Alaska and one from Sweden, were analysed with consideration to intraspecific dietary variability related to prey size depending on geographical origin, sex and individual age as well as tooth function. Occlusal enamel facets of the upper fourth premolars, first molars and the second lower molar were analysed via three-dimensional surface texture analysis. The Swedish wolves displayed facets characterized by higher peaks and deeper, more voluminous dales, featuring an overall rougher surface than the wolves from Alaska. Compared to females, the Swedish male wolves had a slightly larger dale area and hill volume on their facets. Upper fourth premolars are smoother and had higher values in texture direction compared to upper first molars. The upper first molars were rougher than the occluding lower second molars and were characterized by larger and deeper dales. We find evidence supporting intraspecific dietary segregation, and antagonistic asymmetry in occlusal wear signatures. The data offer new insights into the roles of apex predators like the grey wolf.

Somatometric Characteristics of the Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) in Bulgaria

Grey wolf (Canis lupus Linnaeus 1758) is the largest representative of the Canidae family in Bulgaria. It inhabits almost the whole territory, most frequently the mountainous and hilly areas. The grey wolf is a hunting species in the country. Despite this, there is little information in the literature on its size. The aim of this work was to provide the first systematized data of the somatometric characteristics (weight – P; total body length – L; length of the body to the base of the tail – Lb; tail length – Lo and height at the withers – Hb) of the grey wolf in Bulgaria and to establish what is the degree of their sexual dimorphism. We found that the adult males are 24.3% heavier than the females (t=4.46; p<0.001). They also have a longer body by 8.8% (t = 3.66; p<0.001) and a greater height by 6.5% (U=546; p=0.005). The smallest difference (6.2%) between the two sexes was observed in tail length (U=629.5; p=0.03). The results of our study support the clear sexual dimorphism established in other wolf populations. Further studies are needed to link the wolf ’s body size data with prey type data in the respective areas for more clarity. This will be beneficial both for better wolf population management and for the accumulation of a database.  

Moose in wolf diets across northeastern Minnesota

AbstractThe moose (Alces alces; mooz in Anishinaabemowin, Ojibwe language) population has recently declined in Minnesota, USA, and gray wolf (Canis lupus; ma'iingan) predation is likely a contributing factor. We analyzed diet composition of gray wolves in northeastern Minnesota during 2011–2013 to evaluate the importance of moose as prey and seasonal and regional variations in wolf diet. We identified frequency of occurrence of prey items and biomass consumed in 1,000 wolf scats collected on and adjacent to the Grand Portage Indian Reservation and Voyageurs National Park and within the 1854 Ceded Territory (greater northeastern Minnesota). White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; waawaashkeshiwag [plural]), moose, and beaver (Castor canadensis; amikwag [plural]) composed the majority of wolf diet, with moose as the primary prey in Grand Portage (35–54% of diet by biomass across seasons) and deer the primary prey in the 1854 Ceded Territory (46–62%) and Voyageurs (63–79%). Relative importance of prey species differed by study area and season. Moose calves were an important prey item in spring in the 1854 Ceded Territory (12% of diet by biomass) but not in Grand Portage or Voyageurs. Although calves were not a majority of wolf diet by biomass, many calves were preyed upon by wolves (30% of calves born each year in Grand Portage), thus affecting recruitment in a declining moose population. Deer fawns composed 12% of wolf diet in spring and 10% in summer in Grand Portage and 19% in summer in Voyageurs. Beaver composed 16% of wolf diet by biomass in spring and 14% in summer in Grand Portage and composed 22% of wolf diet in spring and 30% in summer in Voyageurs. At most prey densities, moose were preferred and deer avoided in Grand Portage and the 1854 Ceded Territory and beaver were preferred in Voyageurs. Our results can be used in conjunction with predation and prey studies to evaluate the effect of wolves on prey populations.

Craniometrical sexual dimorphism of the grey wolf (Canis lupus, Canidae, Carnivora) in Bulgaria

Cranial sexual dimorphism in grey wolf (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) from Bulgaria has not been studied so far. Skulls from adult individuals from across the country were studied. Thirty-six parameters (35 craniodental measurements and a volumetric one) of each skull were measured. The Bulgarian wolf population exhibits weak craniodental sexual dimorphism, which is male-biased, as is typical in canids with a monogamous social system. However, the sexual dimorphism is more pronounced than in the studied more northern populations.

Spatial overlap of gray wolves and ungulate prey changes seasonally corresponding to prey migration

BackgroundPrey are more vulnerable during migration due to decreased familiarity with their surroundings and spatially concentrated movements. Predators may respond to increased prey vulnerability by shifting their ranges to match prey. Moose (Alces alces) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are primary gray wolf (Canis lupus) prey and important subsistence species for Indigenous communities. We hypothesized wolves would increase use of ungulate migration corridors during migrations and predicted wolf distributions would overlap primary available prey.MethodsWe examined seasonal gray wolf, moose, and white-tailed deer movements on and near the Grand Portage Indian Reservation, Minnesota, USA. We analyzed GPS collar data during 2012–2021 using Brownian bridge movement models (BBMM) in Migration Mapper and mechanistic range shift analysis (MRSA) to estimate individual- and population-level occurrence distributions and determine the status and timing of range shifts. We estimated proportional overlap of wolf distributions with moose and deer distributions and tested for differences among seasons, prey populations, and wolf sex and pack affiliations.ResultsWe identified a single migration corridor through which white-tailed deer synchronously departed in April and returned in October–November. Gray wolf distributions overlapped the deer migration corridor similarly year-round, but wolves altered within-range distributions seasonally corresponding to prey distributions. Seasonal wolf distributions had the greatest overlap with deer during fall migration (10 October–28 November) and greatest overlap with moose during summer (3 May–9 October).ConclusionsGray wolves did not increase their use of the white-tailed deer migration corridor but altered distributions within their territories in response to seasonal prey distributions. Greater overlap of wolves and white-tailed deer in fall may be due to greater predation success facilitated by asynchronous deer migration movements. Greater summer overlap between wolves and moose may be linked to moose calf vulnerability, American beaver (Castor canadensis) co-occurrence, and reduced deer abundance associated with migration. Our results suggest increases in predation pressure on deer in fall and moose in summer, which can inform Indigenous conservation efforts. We observed seasonal plasticity of wolf distributions suggestive of prey switching; that wolves did not exhibit migratory coupling was likely due to spatial constraints resulting from territoriality.

A panel of tetranucleotide STR markers as an alternative approach to forensic DNA identification of wolf and dog.

Commercial panels of microsatellite (STR) loci are focused on the use of DNA of the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) and are often inapplicable for genotyping the DNA of the gray wolf (Canis lupus lupus). We propose a CPlex test system, including one hexa- and 12 tetranucleotide autosomal STR loci, as well as two sex loci, that is equally efficient in DNA identification of biological samples of the wolf and the dog. Analysis of molecular variance between samples revealed significant differentiation values (FST = 0.0784, p < 0.001), which allows to use the panel to differentiate wolf and dog samples. Population subdivision coefficients (θ-values) were calculated for each of the 13 STR loci of the developed test system. It was shown that the values of the genotype frequency for dogs and wolves, without and with considering the θ-value, differ by three orders of magnitude (for dogs 8.9 × 10-16 and 2.1 × 10-14 and for wolves 1.9 × 10-15 and 4.5 × 10-14, respectively). The use of population subdivision coefficients will allow to identify the most reliable results of an expert identification study and the power of exclusion provided by the STR loci of the CPlex test system makes it possible to achieve a reliable level of evidence in forensic DNA analysis of both wolves and dogs. The test system has been validated for use in forensic identification of the dog and wolf based on biological traces found at crime scenes, as well as for individual identification and establishing biological relationship of animals of these species.

Suspected True Hermaphroditism in a Free-ranging Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) in Interior Alaska, USA.

Hermaphroditism or intersexuality occurs endogenously in most mammal species. We document the behavior and physical and anatomic appearance of a suspected true hermaphroditic free-ranging wild gray wolf (Canis lupus) in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska, USA.

Native prey, not landscape change or novel prey, drive cougar (Puma concolor) distribution at a boreal forest range edge.

Many large carnivores, despite widespread habitat alteration, are rebounding in parts of their former ranges after decades of persecution and exploitation. Cougars (Puma concolor) are apex predator with their remaining northern core range constricted to mountain landscapes and areas of western North America; however, cougar populations have recently started rebounding in several locations across North America, including northward in boreal forest landscapes. A camera-trap survey of multiple landscapes across Alberta, Canada, delineated a range edge; within this region, we deployed an array of 47 camera traps in a random stratified design across a landscape spanning a gradient of anthropogenic development relative to the predicted expansion front. We completed multiple hypotheses in an information-theoretic framework to determine if cougar occurrence is best explained by natural land cover features, anthropogenic development features, or competitor and prey activity. We predicted that anthropogenic development features from resource extraction and invading white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virgianius) explain cougar distribution at this boreal range edge. Counter to our predictions, the relative activity of native prey, predominantly snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), was the best predictor of cougar occurrence at this range edge. Small-bodied prey items are particularly important for female and sub-adult cougars and may support breeding individuals in the northeast boreal forest. Also, counter to our predictions, there was not a strong relationship detected between cougar occurrence and gray wolf (Canis lupus) activity at this range edge. However, further investigation is recommended as the possibility of cougar expansion into areas of the multi-prey boreal system, where wolves have recently been controlled, could have negative consequences for conservation goals in this region (e.g. the recovery of woodland caribou [Rangifer tarandus caribou]). Our study highlights the need to monitor contemporary distributions to inform conservation management objectives as large carnivores recover across North America.

Nurturing orphaned Indian Grey Wolf at Machia Biological Park, Jodhpur, India

The Indian Grey Wolf Canis lupus pallipes is an iconic species of grassland in India. It is a Schedule 1 species according to the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and CITES Appendix 1 species. In the absence of parental care, five wolf pups were rescued from Baavarla on 26 November 2020 and brought into Machia Biological Park for hand rearing. In the absence of colostrum, a milk replacer formula (PetLac) was provided to the pups. The pups were kept at an ambient room temperature of 101°F as an adjustment to their natural surroundings. Gripe water, Vitamin A, and multivitamins were administered orally. The temperature and body growth parameters were measured and recorded weekly. Rabies vaccine was administered in the 26th week from the date of rescue. The diet of the wolf was gradually changed and from the 37th week, raw meat was included in their diet. Antibiotics Ciplox-TZ (ciprofloxacin and tinidazole tablet) Brand-Cipla and SPORLAC-DS (lactic acid bacillus tablets 120M) Brand-sanzyme Ltd. were given periodically to restore the gut fauna of the pups.