Grayscale Levels Research Articles

Real-Time Defects Analyses Using High-Speed Imaging during Aluminum Magnesium Alloy Laser Welding

In this study a continuous wave Ytterbium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (Yb: YAG) disk laser has been used for welding of AlMg3 casted alloy. A high-speed imaging camera has been employed to record hot vapor plume features during the process. The purpose was to identify a mechanism of pores detection in real-time based on correlations between metallographic analyses and area/intensity of the hot vapor in various locations of the samples. The pores formation and especially the position of these pores had to be kept under control in order to weld thick samples. Based on the characterization of the hot vapor, it has been found that the increase of the vapor area that exceeded a threshold value (18.5 ± 1 mm2) was a sign of pores formation within the weld seam. For identification of the pores’ locations during welding, the monitored element was the hot vapor intensity. The hot vapor core spots having a grayscale level reaching 255 was associated with the formation of a local pore. These findings have been devised based on correlation between pores placement in welds cross-section microscopy images and the hot vapor plume features in those respective positions.

Assessment of Mineral Gain in White Spot Lesions Using CPP-ACP and CPP-ACFP in Different Clinical Protocols: A Proof of Concept Study

Subsurface remineralization can be promoted by the topical application of nanoparticles of casein phosphopeptide-amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP-ACP). To assess changes in enamel white spot lesions, an in situ proof-of-concept investigation was performed using 5 subjects (all of whom were healthy young adults) with a cross-over study design. Custom orthodontic brackets were attached to the buccal surfaces of the maxillary second premolar and first molar teeth. Each bracket had a recess that held a slab of enamel with a standardized 100 μm deep white spot lesion (WSL). Changes in mineral were evaluated in lesion cross sections using backscatter electron imaging (BSE) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). The following products were applied twice daily for 2 weeks: GC Tooth Mousse™ (CPP-ACP), Tooth Mousse Plus™ (CPP-ACFP), CPP-ACFP Mineral Enhanced (CPP-ACFP Enh), or the vehicle paste of CPP-ACFP containing 900 ppm fluoride. To ensure blinding, all products had identical flavours and packaging. For each subject, the products were used in a random sequence, with washout periods between products. Compared to the baseline situation, favourable changes in white spot lesions occurred with all products. Analysis of enamel samples in cross section showed improvements in mineral levels, as seen in BSE grey scale levels from the enamel surface through the lesion. These were accompanied by enhanced calcium and phosphorus levels as seen using EPMA. The ranking of products for subsurface mineral gain, from best to worst, was: CPP-ACFP = CPP-ACFP Enh > CPP-ACP > vehicle with fluoride. Rapid remineralization occurred in this clinical model, which is due to a combination of factors: the enamel slabs were located on tooth surfaces exposed to parotid saliva, the surfaces were brushed regularly to remove dental plaque biofilm, and compliance with twice daily topical use of products was high. Such model systems may be useful for screening new product formulations for their effect on enamel WSL.

Transoesophageal Ultrasound Assessment of Lung Aeration in Patients With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.

Introduction: The effect of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) depends closely on the potential for lung recruitment. Bedside assessment of lung recruitability is crucial for personalized lung-protective mechanical ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) patients.Methods: We developed a transoesophageal lung ultrasound (TE-LUS) method in which a quantitative (computer-assisted) grayscale determination served as a guide to PEEP-induced lung recruitment. The method is based on the following hypothesis: when the PEEP increases, inflation of the recruited alveoli leads to significant changes in the air/water ratio. Normally ventilated areas are hypoechoic because the ultrasound waves are weakly reflected while poorly aerated areas or non-aerated areas are hyperechoic. We calculated the TE-LUS re-aeration score (RAS) as the ratio of the mean gray scale level at low PEEP to that value at high PEEP for the lower and upper lobes. A RAS > 1 indicated an increase in ventilated area. We used this new method to detect changes in ventilation in patients with a low (<0.5) vs. high (≥0.5) recruitment-to-inflation (R/I) ratio (i.e., the ratio between the recruited lung compliance and the respiratory system compliance at low PEEP).Results: We included 30 patients with moderate-to-severe ARDS. In patients with a high R/I ratio, the TE-LUS RAS was significantly higher in the lower lobes than in the upper lobes (1.20 [1.12–1.63] vs. 1.05 [0.89–1.38]; p = 0.05). Likewise, the TE-LUS RAS in the lower lobes was significantly higher in the high R/I group than in the low R/I group (1.20 [1.12–1.63] vs. 1.07 [1.00–1.20]; p = 0.04).Conclusion: The increase in PEEP induces a substantial gain in the ventilation detected by TE-LUS of poorly or non-aerated lower lobes (dependent lung regions), especially in patients with a high R/I ratio.

Evaluation of rehabilitation exercise effects by using gradation-based skeletal muscle echo intensity in older individuals: a one-group before-and-after trial study

BackgroundHigher muscle echo intensity (EI) reflects higher content of fat and/or connective tissue within skeletal muscle, eventually inducing lower muscle strength, physical dysfunction, and metabolic impairment. Continuous exercise decreases muscle EI in older individuals; however, it is not well understood how several months’ rehabilitation exercise affects gradation-based EI. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 6 months of rehabilitation exercise on gradation-based higher and lower EI in older men and women.MethodsTwenty-seven men and women (7 men, 20 women; age, 75.6 ± 6.4 years; height, 154.3 ± 8.5 cm; weight, 55.8 ± 9.7 kg) participated in this study. This study was a one-group before-and-after trial. They needed long-term care for activities of daily living. They performed rehabilitation exercises consisting of resistance exercises using a hydraulic resistance machine, stretching, and aerobic exercises using a recumbent bicycle once or twice a week for 6 months. B-mode ultrasonographic transverse image was taken from thigh muscles, e.g., rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and biceps femoris. We calculated gradation-based cross-sectional area (CSA) from thigh muscles by dividing 256 greyscale level to 10 different components levels (e.g., 0–24, 25–49, 50–74, …, 200–224 and 225–249 a.u.).ResultsLowest EI (e.g., 0–24 a.u.) CSA of thigh muscle was significantly increased after the exercise (0.3 ± 0.3 to 1.0 ± 0.8 cm2; P < 0.05). Middle to higher EI (e.g., 50–74, 75–99, 100–124, 125–149, 150–174, 175–199 and 200–224 a.u.) CSAs were significantly decreased from 23.0 to 68.7% after the exercise (P < 0.05).ConclusionsSeveral months’ rehabilitation exercise affected both lower and higher EI in older men and women. This result suggests that rehabilitation exercise changes muscle composition by increasing contractile muscle tissue and decreasing fat and connective tissues.

Cryo-EM density maps adjustment for subtraction, consensus and sharpening

Electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM) has emerged as a powerful structural biology instrument to solve near-atomic three-dimensional structures. Despite the fast growth in the number of density maps generated from cryo-EM data, comparison tools among these reconstructions are still lacking. Current proposals to compare cryo-EM data derived volumes perform map subtraction based on adjustment of each volume grey level to the same scale. We present here a more sophisticated way of adjusting the volumes before comparing, which implies adjustment of grey level scale and spectrum energy, but keeping phases intact inside a mask and imposing the results to be strictly positive. The adjustment that we propose leaves the volumes in the same numeric frame, allowing to perform operations among the adjusted volumes in a more reliable way. This adjustment can be a preliminary step for several applications such as comparison through subtraction, map sharpening, or combination of volumes through a consensus that selects the best resolved parts of each input map. Our development might also be used as a sharpening method using an atomic model as a reference. We illustrate the applicability of this algorithm with the reconstructions derived of several experimental examples. This algorithm is implemented in Xmipp software package and its applications are user-friendly accessible through the cryo-EM image processing framework Scipion.

WS7.7. Overview of quantitative muscle ultrasound

The diagnosis and treatment of a patient with suspected neuromuscular disease requires an integrated approach that utilizes clinical, electrodiagnostic, pathologic and genetic data. Ultrasound complements the clinical and electrophysiology exam by showing the degree of abnormalities in myopathies, as well as spontaneous muscle activities in motor neuron diseases and other disorders. US is particularly well suited for evaluation of neuromuscular disorders as it can be performed at the bedside, has no need for sedation, can rapidly evaluate multiple body regions, and is well tolerated by both children and adults including patients in wheelchairs or those who cannot lay flat or still. Muscle ultrasound can be used as a biomarker for Duchenne and FSH muscular dystrophy and spinal muscular atrophy, and the combination of electromyography and ultrasound increases the diagnostic certainty of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Qualitative visual analysis of muscle can be graded using the Heckmatt scale, based on the degree of echogenicity and visualization of the deep boney structures. Quantification of the gray scale levels can be performed by importing the ultrasound image into an image analysis software program such as ImageJ, selecting a region of interest within the muscle belly, and measuring the mean gray scale pixel values within the region of interest. Quantitative analysis allows for more sensitive and specific determinations of muscle pathology than qualitative analysis, with reported sensitivities for neuromuscular pathology around 95%. A drawback of quantitative muscle ultrasound is that it requires that imaging settings be held constant and that normative values have been obtained using identical imaging parameters. A strong advantage of ultrasound over other imaging modalities is that evaluation in real time permits the identification of pathologic muscle movement, particularly fasciculations.

Study on Two-Phase Mixing Inside Flow Focusing/Blurring Nozzle by Gray Distribution Analysis Method

The application prospect of a flow focusing/blurring nozzle is broad but research on gas-liquid flow inside the nozzle is not comprehensive. The gas-liquid mixing inside the nozzle is difficult to study by visualization experiment, so this paper proposes to study the gas-liquid flow or mixing inside the nozzle by the gray scale level distribution of the experimental images. The results show that the increase of air flow rate is beneficial to two-phase mixing inside the nozzle, while the influence of water flow rate, tube hole distance (the distance between inner tube and nozzle outlet) and orifice diameter increase is opposite. The influence of air inertia force on two-phase mixing is weaker than the water inertia force under different parameters, the effect of the air inertia force on two-phase mixing is similar to tube hole distance under a small flow rate, the effect of the orifice diameter on two-phase mixing is relatively weak. In addition, the analysis of the gas-liquid flow field in the mixing zone shows that the gas-liquid flow in the nozzle is stable in the flow focusing mode. In the flow blurring mode, the gas-liquid flow inside the nozzle has radial stability but axial pulsation. In the transition mode, the gas-liquid flow inside the nozzle is unstable, but the gas-liquid flow is close to the flow blurring mode.

Deep learning segmentation of transverse musculoskeletal ultrasound images for neuromuscular disease assessment

Ultrasound imaging is a patient-friendly and robust technique for studying physiological and pathological muscles. An automatic deep learning (DL) system for the analysis of ultrasound images could be useful to support an expert operator, allowing the study of large datasets requiring less human interaction. The purpose of this study is to present a deep learning algorithm for the cross-sectional area (CSA) segmentation in transverse musculoskeletal ultrasound images, providing a quantitative grayscale analysis which is useful for studying muscles, and to validate the results in a large dataset. The dataset included 3917 images of biceps brachii, tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius medialis acquired on 1283 subjects (mean age 50 ± 21 years, 729 male). The algorithm was based on multiple deep-learning architectures, and its performance was compared to a manual expert segmentation. We compared the mean grayscale value inside the automatic and manual CSA using Bland-Altman plots and a correlation analysis. Classification in healthy and abnormal muscles between automatic and manual segmentation were compared using the grayscale value z-scores. In the test set, a Precision of 0.88 ± 0.12 and a Recall of 0.92 ± 0.09 was achieved. The network segmentation performance was slightly less in abnormal muscles, without a loss of discrimination between healthy and abnormal muscle images. Bland-Altman plots showed no clear trend in the error distribution and the two readings have a 0.99 Pearson's correlation coefficient (p < 0.001, test set). The ICC(A, 1) calculated between the z-score readings was 0.99. The algorithm achieves robust CSA segmentation performance and gives mean grayscale level information comparable to a manual operator. This could provide a helpful tool for clinicians in neuromuscular disease diagnosis and follow-up. The entire dataset and code are made available for the research community.

Application of Printer Toner As a Versatile Intermediate for Protein Immobilization in Flexible Immunosensing Platforms

Introduction For the last years, low-cost microfluidics and microarrays on polyester substrates have gained applications in a variety of fields, including analytical Po int-of- C are systems. The use of a 2D platforms brings a significant reduction in assay costs, both due to a lower consumption of materials and reagents, as well as a simplicity of manufacturing process in comparison to current approaches [1]. Commercial applicability of immunoassays requires the development of efficient strategies for antibody immobilization in bulk quantities on a wide variety of readily available substrates. Other factors, which influence the usefulness of antibody immobilization approach are scalability, reproducibility and cost-efficiency. Simple, one-step methods such as passive adsorption on hydrophobic surfaces or direct protein immobilization with the use of functionalized silanes are particularly appreciated in fabrication of immunosensing platforms [2]. The use of masking properties of cured toner as an intermediate for passive and covalent immobilization of antibodies on poly(ethylene terephtalate) (PET) seems to be an attractive and still undiscovered path for development of immunoassays on versatile, printable substrates [3]. Fabricatio n of t oner-based platforms for Ab-capturing an d immunosensing Throughout presented research two general approaches for immobilization of antibody and antibody-binding protein (protein A/G) were examined: 1) adsorption on pristine PET@toner foil via hydrophobic interactions, 2) amine-dependent, covalent binding on glycidyloxypropyl tromethoxysilane (GTPMS)- coated surface. Print pattern (at various grayscale levels) was designed in ChemSketch 2.0 and printed on PET surface using HP 100 LaserJet P1006 printer at resolution of 1200 dpi. Pristine PET@toner foils were used for passive adsorption. For GTPMS coating, hydrophilization of toner was performed by a 10-minute treatment with the use of UV/ozone cleaner. Then, 3% GTPMS solution in 50% ethanol was dispensed on freshly-oxidized foil for 30 min. Both multi-purpose substrates characterized by different surface properties were then incubated with rabbit anti-CRP antibody or protein A/G followed by surface blocking. Method To fully characterize the analytical performance in a role of immunosensing platforms, two types of immunoreactions were carried out on prepared 2D Ab/protein arrays. Direct immuno-labelling of rabbit anti-CRP antibody with anti-rabbit IgG-alkaline phosphatase (ALP) conjugate aimed at comparative evaluation of specificity and efficiency of antibody coating. Indirect sandwich immunoassay for C-reactive protein was selected as a model to determine basic working parameters of toner-based immunoassay. Antibody-capturing properties of protein A/G surface were evaluated by determination of monoclonal antibody-ALP conjugate binding capacity. For quantitative analysis, enzymatic reaction was carried out by dispensing p-nitrophenyl phosphate as chromogenic ALP substrate. Results and Conclusions Results of immunolabeling confirmed the usefulness of cured toner as an intermediate for efficient antibody and protein A/G coating via hydrophobicity-driven adsorption. Due to an increase of surface area and a hydrophobicity higher than for pristine PET, the densest layers were observed for fully printed surfaces (100% black level). The differences in the surface properties were also reflected in kinetics of antibody binding. UV/ozone treatment resulted in permanent oxidation and thus hydrophilization of toner surface. The introduction of hydroxyl groups favored reaction with GTPMS. Epoxy-silane coating of oxidized toner enabled a rapid fabrication of protein-reactive surface characterized by a high binding capacity in a single step immobilization. Thanks to good adhesion and thus tight bonding of laser-cut adhesive tape to PET@toner, the microchannel architecture was obtained. It opened up the possibility to carry out immunoassays in microfluidic systems. It was proven that presented methodologies, due to the design and fabrication simplicity, use of commonly available materials and up-scalability, could be successfully applied in immunodiagnostics or flexible microfluidics for Lab-on-a-Foil technology.

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Grayscale image for broadband linear polarization measurement by an ultracompact metasurface.

The polarization of light, the vector nature of electromagnetic waves, is one of the fundamental parameters. Finding a direct and efficient method to measure the state of polarized light is extremely urgent for nano-optical applications. Based on Malus's law, we design an ultracompact metasurface composed of silver nanorods, which is demonstrated to directly measure the state of linear polarization by a grayscale image. Using an ultrathin metasurface, we generate grayscale images with gradient grayscale levels which are linked directly to the polarization state of the incident light. The direction of the linear polarization of incident light can be conveniently and efficiently obtained through extracting the angle of the brightest area of the grayscale image. The ultrathin metasurface operates in the broadband 750-1100 nm spectral range. It is a novel and significant method to analyze the linear polarization state of light, which provides opportunities for various applications, such as polarimetric multispectral imaging and miniaturized polarimeter.

T1-weighted and T2-weighted MRI image synthesis with convolutional generative adversarial networks.

The objective of this study was to propose an optimal input image quality for a conditional generative adversarial network (GAN) in T1-weighted and T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images. A total of 2,024 images scanned from 2017 to 2018 in 104 patients were used. The prediction framework of T1-weighted to T2-weighted MRI images and T2-weighted to T1-weighted MRI images were created with GAN. Two image sizes (512 × 512 and 256 × 256) and two grayscale level conversion method (simple and adaptive) were used for the input images. The images were converted from 16-bit to 8-bit by dividing with 256 levels in a simple conversion method. For the adaptive conversion method, the unused levels were eliminated in 16-bit images, which were converted to 8-bit images by dividing with the value obtained after dividing the maximum pixel value with 256. The relative mean absolute error (rMAE ) was 0.15 for T1-weighted to T2-weighted MRI images and 0.17 for T2-weighted to T1-weighted MRI images with an adaptive conversion method, which was the smallest. Moreover, the adaptive conversion method has a smallest mean square error (rMSE) and root mean square error (rRMSE), and the largest peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and mutual information (MI). The computation time depended on the image size. Input resolution and image size affect the accuracy of prediction. The proposed model and approach of prediction framework can help improve the versatility and quality of multi-contrast MRI tests without the need for prolonged examinations.

Linear Array Industrial Computerized Tomography Quantitative Detection Method for Small Defects Based on Coefficients of Variation

A method for accurate and quantitative nondestructive testing of small defects inside metal components has been developed by experimentally investigating the grayscale distribution in computerized tomography (CT) images for a typical 304 stainless-steel material that is extensively used in industrial products. CT scans were performed as a function of the defect pore size. The grayscale level and the noise deviation distribution were measured in each CT image. The localized grayscale features where the defects are located in the CT image were studied using wavelet decomposition. A quantitative correlation between the defect size and the grayscale distribution in the CT images was established based on the coefficient of variation. The experimental findings, when combined with the advantages of an industrial CT detection method, allow for small defects to be characterized, imaged, and presented. The results show that the quantitative accuracy of this method is higher when compared with the traditional full-width at half-maximum method. The measurement process developed herein is simple and highly practicable and, furthermore, represents an effective way to characterize the size of small defects.

Оценка фрактальной размерности поверхности разрушения образцов горных пород

An approach to estimate fractal dimension of a microphotograph of rock sample fracture surface using the Differential Box Counting (DBC) method is presented. The difference between this algorithm and the classical method for fractal dimension calculation is in that the grayscale levels of pixels of analyzed image are taken into account. This approach does not require initial binarization of the image, which is poorly applicable for estimation of fractal dimension of real objects, such as microphotographs of rock sample surface, which in turn does not lead to the loss of useful information. Testing the method on a set of images generated with different content of pixels of gray levels showed that there is a steady increase in fractal dimension values with increase in the number of added pixels. It is shown that fractal dimension for a set of images simulating crack propagation also demonstrates growth with increasing of fracturing. From a geometric point of view, this feature is a consequence of increase of roughness of the surface, which is a set of rectangles, the height of which corresponds to gray level of pixels of analyzed image. This approach can be used to quantify changes in sample surface structure before and after load action, as well as in real time using high-speed photography of the sample surface or radioscopy of internal cracks. Keywords: fractal analysis, fractal dimension, differential box-counting, fracture surface.

Operational Image Processing Approach for Spray Coverage Measurements in Pesticide Application

Water sensitive papers (WSPs) are mostly used to determine the performance of spray systems used in pesticide application. The most critical stage of an image processing operation is determining the threshold level of WSP images. In this study, an analysis of WSP images was conducted using two thresholding methods. The first was a variable - defined approach (dependent), which determined the thresholding level according to the greyscale level of each WSP sample. The second approach was automated, where the thresholding level was automatically set by image processing software. Using both thresholding methods, the percent spray coverage of the WSP samples was determined using a macro module prepared using the software interface, and the results of both methods were compared. Overall, the spray coverage was high and measurement error was clearly observable for some of the WSP images using the automatic thresholding approach. The percent spray coverage of 17 out of 432 analysed WSP images was found to be 24 to 414 times higher when using the automatic as opposed to the dependent thresholding approach. In addition, extreme values for the percent spray coverage was observed for the automatic method. Our results suggest that percent spray coverage without extreme data can be quickly and practically determined for WSP images using a dependent, variable - defined thresholding method using a macro module.

A Multi-Image Encryption with Super-Lager-Capacity Based on Spherical Diffraction and Filtering Diffusion

A multi-image encryption with super-large-capacity is proposed by using spherical diffraction and filtering diffusion. In the proposed method, initial images are processed sequentially by filtering diffusion and chaos scrambling. The images are combined into one image using XOR operation. The combined image is encrypted by improved equal modulus decomposition after spherical diffraction. There are three main contributions of the proposed method—(1) resisting phase-retrieval attack due to the asymmetry of spherical diffraction; (2) high flexibility of decrypting images individually; and (3) super-large encryption capacity of the product of image resolution and grayscale level, which is the most significant advantage. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed encryption are verified by numerical simulation results.

Edge detection of heterogeneity in transmission images based on frame accumulation and multiband information fusion

In optical transmission imaging, even a very thin layer of a scattering material can appear opaque make the image blurry, which restricts the positioning of heterogeneity in transmission images. Aiming at the problem, an exploratory method based on frame accumulation and multiband information fusion was proposed and proven, which can be used to detect the edge of heterogeneity in transmission images. Treating the trichromatic image as an example, the following experiment was designed: Firstly, the transmission video of phantom is collected by camera. Then, single-band images are decoded at “R∖G∖B” and further accumulated by frame accumulation technology to obtain the image with high grayscale level, respectively. Lastly, the information fusion of the three single-band images is realized through neural network, and further the edge could be detected by the established model. The experimental result shows that the heterogeneity edge can be detected more accurately by this method. Therefore, the validity of this method for detecting heterogeneity in transmission images is demonstrated. It is expected to provide an idea for the future clinical diagnosis of breast tumor by transmission method.

Investigating the Effect of Plasma Treatment and Amine-Based Surfactants on Quality of Sheepskin Dyeing

The paper presents the results of studying the effect of non-equilibrium low-temperature plasma (LTP) and synthesized non-ionic and cation-active amine-based surfactants on the quality of acid dyeing of wool and leather sides of sheepskins. The plasma treatment conditions, which led to high quality in colour intensity and uniformity of dyeing along both the height of a wool fiber and sheepskin surface area, were determined (U=3.0 кV; I=0.8 A; Wp=2.15 kW; τ=5.0 min; G =0.04 g/s; plasma gas – argon). The study showed that the application of surfactants for the dyeing process led to an increase in dye selectivity ranging from 90% to 100%. A significant increase in dye resistance to dry friction of sheepskins as well as in their strength and elastic characteristics after low temperature plasma treatment was observed (grayscale level was 5; the tensile strength at breaking increased by 10%, the tensile elongation of a leather fabric after dyeing increased by 15%). The study proved the efficiency of the technology which combined plasma treatment and dyeing of sheepskins in the presence of synthesized surfactants used as dye-leveling agents.

Performance of Different Classifiers for Marine Habitat Mapping using Side Scan Sonar and Object-Based Image Analysis

Acoustic sonar techniques have been one of the successful underwater mapping alternatives for identifying the seafloor features. The integration between the technique and classification analysis can produce detail map of the seafloor. Among these sonar technologies, side-scan sonar (SSS) is one of the tools for underwater mapping that can provide high spatial resolution seafloor mosaic which is presented in greyscale level. However, before it can be used for the coral reef marine habitat mapping, it is essential to properly assess its performance and quantify the amount of information that can be extracted. The objective of this study is to determine the accuracy of habitat maps derived using side scan sonar data, Object-based Image Analysis (OBIA) and five different classifier algorithms; Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF), k-Nearest Neighbour (k-NN), Decision Tree, and Bayes. This study utilized side-scan sonar model Klein system 3000 which operated at 100kHz combined with video data that was conducted in shallow water (depth > 10m). First, eight (8) texture layers were derived from side scan sonar mosaic using GLCM technique. Then, the GLCM layers of texture features were reduced using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and analysed to seek for the most contributed texture layers. A total of 80 samples were derived which consist of four (4) classes; coral, sand, silt and mud. The result shows that the Support Vector Machine (SVM) method produced the highest accuracy which is 81.25% followed by k-Nearest Neighbours (k-NN), Random Forest (RF), Decision Tree and Bayes (68.75%, 66.25%, 57.5% and 45% respectively). The used of OBIA with SSS data offers a promising method to map marine habitats for a better understanding of spatial distribution and monitoring habitat changes in the future.

Six Months’ Rehabilitation Exercise Affects Lower And Higher Muscle Echo Intensity In Elderly Individuals

Muscle echo intensity (EI) reflects the content of fat and connective tissue within a skeletal muscle. Muscle EI becomes higher with aging and/or inactivity caused by increase of fat and connective tissues, and eventually it may induce lower muscle strength. We have previously reported that the EI improved after a few months’ resistance and endurance training in elderly individuals. This result would be led by decreasing of fat and connective tissues (i.e. decrease higher EI area) and/or increasing of contractive muscle tissue (i.e. increase lower EI area); however, it is not well understood how the muscle EI change by several months rehabilitation exercise. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 6 months rehabilitation exercise on gradation-based muscle EI area in elderly men and women. METHODS: Five men and women (2 men and 3 women; age, 75 ± 5 years; height, 156 ± 4 cm; weight, 53 ± 9 kg) participated in this study. They performed rehabilitation exercises consisting of resistance exercises, stretching, and aerobic exercises once or twice a week for 6 months because they needed long-term care during a part of daily living. B-mode ultrasonographic transverse image was taken from rectus femoris. To obtain EI, region of interest (ROI) was set on rectus femoris as large as possible exclude fascia. Average muscle EI, which was shown by 256 gray scale level, was measured within a ROI. We also calculated cross-sectional area based on 256 grey scale level divided into 6 different components (e.g. 0-49, 50-99, 100-149, 150-199, 200-249 and 250-256 a.u.). RESULTS: Average EI decreased after six months exercise (72.70 ± 7.55 vs. 53.50 ± 15.51 a.u., p < 0.05). Lower ranged EI area was significantly increased after the exercise (0-49; 1.13 ± 0.88 vs. 1.93 ± 1.00 cm2, p < 0.05). Middle to higher ranged EI areas were significantly decreased after the exercise (100-149; 0.44 ± 0.20 vs. 0.24 ± 0.15 cm2, 150-199; 0.08 ± 0.05 vs. 0.03 ± 0.04 cm2, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Six months rehabilitation exercise improved muscle EI in elderly men and women. This result might be induced by decreasing fat and connective tissues and increasing contractile muscle tissue.