Grave Goods Research Articles

Gravfeltet i Hålandsmarka, Time kommune, SV-Norge

In 2008, a pre-development excavation examined a grave field on the ridge of Hålandsmarka. The burial ground was in use from the Early Bronze Age to the end of the Iron Age, and the excavation provided an opportunity to gain new insights into the long-term use of a grave field. The Hålandsmarka excavation allowed archaeologists to explore not only reuse of the grave field throughout this period, but also variations in burial form, treatment of the corpse, and grave goods over shorter timespans. The aim of the project has been to challenge the normative approach to graves as containers of a single burial event, and call attention to construction processes and other practices demonstrating the repeated use and transformation of the graves and their surroundings. Graves can be viewed as places of recurring engagement between the living and the dead, and as opportunities to explore the importance, duration and entanglement of material culture. Hålandsmarka should not be considered as a unique site: the results presented here are heavily dependent on our choice of archaeological methods, and we have the responsibility to be aware of the potential for complexity in both past and present practices when planning future excavations. The findings from Hålandsmarka call attention to the multi-temporal and gathered nature of grave fields in particular, as well as the archaeological record in general.

Burial of a Golden Horde Nomad from the Kovalevka Kurgan Cemetery

Introduction. The article introduces into scientific circulation the archaeological and anthropological materials from the Golden Horde burial of the Kovalevka Kurgan Cemetery. Kurgan No. 35 dating back to the early Iron Age was studied in the course of the fieldwork carried out by the Volgograd State University expedition in the Oktyabrsky district of the Volgograd region in 2021. The Kurgan is located in the southern part of the cemetery on the upper terrace of the right bank of the river Aksai Esaulovsky in an arable field. Methods and materials. Two burials were examined because of the archaeological excavations. The main burial No. 2 dates back to the late Sarmatian period, while the intake burial No. 1 dates back to the middle age period. Analysis and results. New anthropological materials were obtained in the course of the excavations, which complement our understanding of the nomadic population from the Lower Volga region. The bone remains belonged to a male individual of mesomorphic build of about 164.5 cm tall with a long and narrow skull. A set of pathological conditions were recorded on his bones, appearing because of an active lifestyle and professional activity. The outcomes of the archaeological study of the Kurgan No. 35 from the Kovalevka Kurgan cemetery as of 2021 can be used in the museum and local history work, as well as in studies of the Lower Volga regional ancient history. Authors’ contributions. In this study, V.I. Moiseev and V.Yu. Moiseeva prepared a descriptive part of the archaeological material, carried out the funeral rites and grave goods analyses, and prepared conclusions based on the results of the research. E.V. Pererva conducted a study of anthropological material and defined the craniological, osteological, and pathological features of the individual from burial 1 of the Kurgan No. 35.

ТРИ САРМАТСКИХ ПОГРЕБАЛЬНЫХ КОМПЛЕКСА ИЗ СТЕПНОГО КРЫМА

The work analyzes three recently discovered burial monuments of the 1st century BC – mid (?) 1st century AD in the Steppe Crimea. Their distinctive features are the use of an older kurgan for burial, the predominant orientation of the deceased to the northern sector, the insignificant depth of the burial, the paucity of grave goods, etc. – typical for early Sarmatian burials of the Northern Black Sea region. Therefore, the complexes under consideration should be correlated specifically with this cultural group. It is important to emphasize that, although large-scale field research in recent years has covered a significant part of the steppe space of the Crimean Peninsula, passing through it in a wide strip from east to west, Sarmatian monuments have not been identified in most of this territory. The newly opened complexes are located on the Kerch Peninsula and near it, i.e. in those areas in which Sarmatian burials were previously known. This only confirms the conclusion already made about the location of Sarmatian burials in the Steppe Crimea only in a narrow strip along the northern and north-eastern borders of the region, along the coast of the Black Sea and Sivash. This location, apparently, marks the path of the ancient nomads from the Dnieper region – one of the main areas of their settlement – to the ancient centers of the Crimean Peninsula, in particular Panticapaeum, to carry out trade and other relationships.

Discovering manganese-based blacks in the grave goods of Kha and Merit (Egypt, 1450-1400 BCE): Multidisciplinary investigation on use and nature

As part of the “TT8 Project”, several research groups examined the grave goods from the Theban Tomb No. 8 of Kha and his wife Merit who lived during the second half of 18th dynasty and were discovered by the Italian Archaeological Mission led by Ernesto Schiaparelli. Thanks to the collaboration of Egyptologists, conservators, and scientists, numerous state-of-the-art, non-invasive methods were used to examine and characterize the objects found in the tomb.During this comprehensive investigation, for which a fully non-invasive approach was designed, the preliminary results for three polychrome wooden caskets showed the unexpected presence of manganese in the black areas in combination with the carbon black ink also present in the black decorations.In addition to MA-XRF analysis, which allowed for the discovery, an innovative imaging method was applied for faster discrimination of black pigments. This method is based on the optical spectral differences between manganese-based blacks and carbon black in the short-wave infrared – with a maximum difference in the range of 1400–1700 nm – and is comparable to a photograph in terms of acquisition time. By using an InGaAs camera with an interferential long-pass filter of 1400 nm, the images were acquired first on a series of mock-ups and then on the wooden caskets. Using false color imaging representation, the areas painted with manganese black showed a clear red false color, in contrast to the black false color of the areas painted with carbon black. The results are fundamental to understanding whether the use of manganese black could be more widespread than reported in the literature so far.

Emergence of fibrecraft specialization 8000 years ago in early Neolithic North China

Fiber technology, crucial to human societies for millennia, encompasses cordage and textiles. The development of fiber crops and the production of fiber-based clothing are significant components of the Neolithic Revolution. Despite China being an independent center for agriculture, the role of fiber technology in this context remains largely unexplored. In this project, we employed a comprehensive approach that combines microfossil analysis and use-wear examinations to study tools from the Peiligang site in North China. This site uniquely spans the Upper Paleolithic and early Neolithic periods, offering an ideal setting for investigating the evolution of fiber production. Our results reveal that some Paleolithic blades and scrapers were associated with fiber production, which coincided with ostrich eggshell beads and hematite during the cold and dry Last Glacial Maximum period. Responding to climatic fluctuations, fiber production played a significant role in subsistence and ritual activities. In the early Neolithic, advanced fiber production is evident. Two adjacent burials yield tools and microfossil remains representing a toolkit for fiber and possible textile production, including harvesting, retting, pounding, scraping, and sewing. Fibers recovered from human bones provide potential evidence of textile production and use. Dyeing with blue, black, and red colorants was common for textiles, cordages, and strings. These grave goods suggest the involvement of the deceased in craft production with bast fibers, possibly embodying the earliest specialization in fiber craft 8000 years ago in Neolithic China.

Identification of Social Status through Grave Goods Using a Biocultural Approach in Interpreting the Alpine Context of Borca Di Cadore, Belluno, Veneto, Italy (18th–19th Centuries)

The cemetery of the Church of Santi Simone e Giuda in Borca di Cadore (Belluno province, Veneto region, Italy) was excavated between 2021 and 2023 as part of an archaeological intervention. The excavation area yielded a total of 21 graves dating back to the 18th–19th century; this was intriguing due to the presence of grave goods and taphonomic indicators that allowed these burials to be interpreted as clothed burials. This contribution examines 14 of the 21 graves, representing the available sample considering preservation conditions. Fieldwork was carried out through close synergy between archaeological and anthropological methodologies, involving careful excavation to verify funerary rituals through taphonomic data analysis. Anthropological methods were applied to determine the biological profile of the individuals, while aspects related to their health status were investigated through paleopathological analyses. Data obtained from field and laboratory observations were cross-referenced with historical and anthropological-cultural data from bibliographic and archival research. Reconstructing the social status of the deceased within the burial context is crucial for understanding the social and cultural dynamics of past populations, achievable only through a biocultural approach integrating information from archaeology, cultural anthropology, and bioarchaeology. Modern burial contexts offer privileged realities due to abundant historical and anthropological-cultural documentation, allowing for a more precise contextualization of bioarchaeological findings with significant support from documentary sources. Studies applied to these periods closer to the present enable the continuous refinement of an investigative method attentive to the synergy of different aspects of biocultural research, enhancing the importance of this approach in reconstructing the life histories of populations.

Carnelian Beads from the Early Bronze Age Fifa Cemetery, Jordan: Aspects of Technology, Use, and Exchange

Between 1989 and 1990 the Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain excavated a group of 15 tombs at the Early Bronze Age IA (c.3700–3400) cist-tomb cemetery at Fifa, Jordan. These tombs contained a variety of grave goods including beads made from carnelian. The present study employs morphometric data and microscopic indicators of manufacture and use to explore the relationship between carnelian beads, burial practices, manufacturing processes, and exchange. Manufacturing traces suggest that the beads from Fifa were created through a process of knapping and progressive stages of abrasion. Beads were perforated through pecking on one or two sides. Polish from use was observed on beads throughout the assemblage, suggesting that the beads were worn prior to their deposition, albeit for an unknown period of time. The amount of this use polish was highly variable suggesting that different beads were in use for greater or lesser periods of time. Morphometric and manufacturing data were utilized in tandem in order to suggest where the beads were produced. While a great deal of prior scholarship has suggested that carnelian beads found in the Early Bronze Age Levant originated in Egypt, we argue that some or all of these beads may alternatively have been produced in Northwestern Arabia or Eastern Jordan. This study demonstrates the value of systematic approaches to the study of beads in order to better understand processes of ritual behavior, craft production, and exchange.

De rol van niet-volwassenen in Oosterdalfsen gedurende de trechterbeker- en enkelgrafperiode

The role of non-adults at Ooster-dalfsen during the Funnelbeaker and Single Grave periodsWithin prehistoric archaeology in northwestern Europe there is an ongoing debate about the transition from the Funnelbeaker to the Single Grave culture. The accepted hypothesis, of a gradual transition, is now being called into question by studies that suggest new migrations into Europe. Can burials tell us more about this transition? To answer this question, Funnelbeaker culture burials and Single Grave culture burials from Oosterdalfsen (province of Overijssel, the Netherlands) were examined. The focus was on distinguishing between non-adults and adults based on grave orientation, grave shape and grave goods. The results show that non-adults of the Funnelbeaker culture were often buried with arrowheads. One non-adult Single Grave culture inhumation also contained arrowheads. This may indicate that the roles of non-adults overlapped between these two cultures, supporting a gradual transition from the Funnelbeaker to the Single Grave culture.

Stone axes throw new light on Baltic stone age mortuary rites

Despite their ubiquity, Mesolithic lithic tools given as funerary offerings have rarely been studied in detail. Whereas personal ornaments (e.g. beads, pendants) are commonly interpreted as markers of social identity and status, archaeologists have struggled to understand the stone tools, commonly regarded as “utilitarian” items. As a result, this class of grave goods has not received the same level of attention, leaving a significant gap in our understanding of Mesolithic mortuary behaviours. Our research challenges long-lasting perceptions of lithic tools as strictly utilitarian objects and draws on studies of one of the most substantial stone axe funerary collections from one of the largest Stone Age cemeteries in Europe–Zvejnieki, Latvia. Evidence suggests the selection of unused axes as grave offerings, while unusual wear traces on an axe found in a female grave (no 57) raises questions about its use in the burial rites. Using a multi-proxy approach, we compare life histories of axes placed in burials to those recovered from contemporary, nearby settlement contexts. Finally, a strong correlation between axes and women and children at Zvejnieki challenges gendered stereotypes of stone tools, historically regarded as possessions of the adult male members of Stone Age societies.

Choburak-I – a necropolis of the Rouran period in the Northern Altai

The article presents the results of studying materials obtained during excavations of the Bulan-Koby necropolis identified as part of the large multi-temporal archaeological complex Choburak-I. This site, located in Chemal district of the Altai Republic, is being studied by an expedition from Altai State University. The burial ground included 12 mounds, which contained undisturbed burials of seven men, three women, a teenager and a child. The key features of the ritual practice identified during the excavations include a small stone mound with an oval stonework-crepidoma; shallow graves; single human inhumation; the head of the dead person pointing northwest; accompanying burial of a horse, laid “at the feet” and on top of the deceased. Representative grave goods was found in the burials, including weapons, items of human equipment, tools and household products, ornaments, as well as horse harness. An analysis of these finds makes it possible to determine the time of construction of the Choburak-I necropolis as the middle – second half of the 4th century AD, which is confirmed by the results of radiocarbon dating. An assumption was made about the short period of the burial ground functioning (no more than 30 years). It was established that this complex belongs to the Dialian tradition of ritual practice of the Bulan-Koby population, the bearers of which constituted the elite of the Northern Altai nomads in the Rouran period.

Styli in Vilnius

Stylus is a metal or bone instrument that was used for writing on a birch bark or wax-coated wooden tablets. The tool itself (Greek: stilos; Latin: stilus) originated in antiquity: styli were common in ancient Greece and Rome. In Medieval Rus', which is characterised by an abundance of archaeological finds related to writing, the first styli date back to the 10th century. In the Middle Ages two types of styli were used – made of iron, for writing on birch, and made of animal bone, for writing on waxed tablets. This particular paper focuses on the latter. Medieval bone styli are a very rare find in Lithuanian archaeological material, especially in burial monuments. According to the data from 1998, only 15 graves out of almost 8000 contained styli. Bone styli are also rare in urban cultural layers. In addition, styli found in cities precede those found in burial grounds. Styli found in ethnic Lithuania are identical to those found in other cities of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, therefore their origin and spread could be associated with the influence of Ruthenian cities of the duchy. Two medieval burial grounds were found in the earliest towns of pagan Lithuania – Kernavė and Vilnius – where the dead were buried according to the Christian tradition (inhumation of the deceased, the east-west orientation (head to the west), wooden constructions, the scant presence of grave goods, and so forth). The most abundant type of grave goods included ornaments; however no tools or weapons typical of pagan burials were found in these two burial grounds. According to archaeological and historical material, burial grounds in Kernavė and Bokšto Street are nearly contemporaneous, both dating back to 13th–14th century although, the burial ground in Bokšto Street remained in use late as the 15th century. Various arguments are provided in debates on the religious affiliation of those who buried members of their community in these burial grounds. Some researchers disagree that the Orthodox were buried in these two burial grounds in the still pagan Lithuania. The lack of evidence on writing in the layers of the town of Kernavė, that is the absence of styli (except those found on the site of the ruler's castle), birch bark or waxed tablets, is presented as one of the arguments supporting the theory of non-Orthodox burials there. It is well known, that such finds were typical of Rus' cities, especially in Great Novgorod, where 1144 items of birch bark have been found up to 2021. Notably, fewer such finds were found in other cities of the Rus'. During the detailed archaeological investigations on the burial ground in Bokšto Street, several bone styli were found. It must be mentioned, that these artefacts were not found in the horizon of the burial ground, but in the later cultural layer, dating back to the 16th century. The material found is discussed in this paper. We also tried to answer the question of whether these styli could have originated from the horizon of the burial ground and how (or if) they could be associated with the 'Civitas Rutenica', Ruthenian city of Vilnius, which was mentioned in historical sources in 1383.

익산지역 마한문화의 성립과 변천

It is generally believed that Mahan was founded before the 2nd century BC. According to historical records, Mahan began with King Jun's migration and settlement in the Iksan area. Since there are not many cases that have been investigated in relation to the residential areas with living remains, few facts of them are known accurately. The tombs constructed include wooden coffin tombs with stone mound, pit tombs, and jar coffin tombs. Out of them, however, wooden coffin tombs with stone mound and pit tombs from an early period are sporadically identified, and the mainly excavated relics are bronze ware. Following the southward transfer of King Jun, a large group of tombs were constructed as in Madong, and the relics excavated are featuring both bronze and iron ware. In light of this, it can be said that the Mahan society in the Iksan region during the establishment period developed by actively accepting advanced civilization. Around the 1st century, the Mahan society in the Iksan region faced a period of stagnation, and villages began to be built in full swing after the 2nd century AD, reaching a peak in the 3rd to 4th centuries AD. Large-scale settlements appeared in places like Sadeok and Jangshin and small- and medium-sized villages were formed and organically connected to each other around the large-scale settlements in the center. As for tombs, mounded tombs with an encircling ditch began to be built in earnest, and it can be seen as the developing period of Mahan culture.. The Mahan culture in the Iksan area sustained even after Baekje territorialization. Such dwellings as four-pillar and non-four-pillar types of Mahan culture continued and, in some dwellings, fire pits made of plate stone and utensils which can be seen as Baekje elements appear and Baekje pottery is found in the sites of dwellings. Furthermore, dwelling sites with pillars used for walls related to the center of Baekje made an entrance. Tombs of the Mahan tradition also continued to be built even after Baekje territorialization. However, the stone chamber or stone-lined tomb related to the center of Baekje were employed for burial body and the grave goods changed to Baekje pottery, while Baekje pottery was excavated within the burial mound. In the areas of Ipjeom-ri and Ungpo-ri, the lower reaches of the Geumgang River, stone- built tombs of Baekje style were built in the mid-5th century, an evidence confirming that Baekje first took control of the lower Geumgang River, an important waterway transportation route and gateway. After the Gwangam-ri area in the middle of the Mangyeong River basin first became Baekje territory, Baekje central culture seemed to have entered the surrounding areas, too.

A heart-shaped bone artifact from Körtiktepe

Along with the emergence of sedentary life, the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) settlements brought revolutionary changes in production of material cultures as well as cultic and ritual activities, which are often argued to be associated with new waves of interactions between humans and their natural world. Körtiktepe of southeastern Turkey yielded by far the richest PPN assemblage in the world, standing among the very few earliest cultural and production centers which acted to be the predecessors of the development and spread of the Neolithic in West Asia. In this paper, we report a heart-shaped bone artifact which is one of the rarest finds in the extremely large cultural assemblage of Körtiktepe. The manufacture features indicate that the “heart-like” shape of this unique artifact was the product of intentional human activity. Overall archaeological context indicates its probable use as a bone pendant or amulet for the dead; providing the fact of its association with three early PPNA burials, many other ritual objects, and a large number of grave goods. Although difficult to argue for its association with the sense for “emotion”, “affection” or “love” in the present world, it is still significant that the unique specimen traces the symbolic presence and ritual use of the shape of a “heart” in West Asian prehistoric context back to the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic of around 10000 cal BC.

Food offerings and firewood: Integrated archaeobotanical analyses of seed/fruit and wood charcoal remains from a Hellenistic-Roman Cemetery on Tinos Island, Cyclades

Archaeobotanical studies have already been widely and successfully used in Greece for the Neolithic to Iron Age periods, yet they were mostly omitted in Classical archaeology. This was justified by the existence of ancient texts, that provide information on plant use in Antiquity. However, not every aspect of life and plant use is described in ancient texts, and additionally, research of past vegetation relies solely on the studies of plant remains. A rescue excavation of a Hellenistic-Roman cemetery with pyres and graves on Tinos Island in the Cyclades provided not only charred seeds/fruits and leaves, but also large amounts of charcoal. The material enabled the study of food offerings / grave goods of plant origin, as well as the choice and availability of fuel wood for cremations. The olive (Olea europaea) seems to have been an important food crop on the island, as it was found in high quantities, accompanied by barley (Hordeum vulgare) and other cereals (Cerealia), as well as cereal products (ACO = amorphous charred objects), figs (Ficus carica) and grapes (Vitis vinifera). Fuel wood for the cremations was mainly based on evergreen oak (Quercus sect. Ilex) and olive wood (Olea europaea), the latter probably deriving from prunings produced in olive groves. Other macroremains, such as a leaf of kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), myrtle charcoal (Myrtus communis) and heather leaves (Erica manipuliflora) point to fuel harvest in Phrygana shrubland, which is the main vegetation form found on the island today.

Kurgans of Gazanbulag

This article presents the results of rescue archaeological excavations carried out in November 2015 — January 2016 (following the program of archaeological research in new building sites, within the framework of the South Caucasus Pipeline Expansion project) near the Gazanbulag River, in the Borsunli kurgan cemetery, and the samples of material culture of the ancient Azerbaijan population identified within the site. The surveyed area is located about one kilometer north from the village of Veyisli, on the right side of the highway leading to the district center — the city of Goranboy (Goranboy district, the Republic of Azerbaijan), at an altitude of 219 m.a.s.l. During the archaeological exploration work carried out in 2013, about 30 burial mounds were discovered on the territory of the Borsunlu “Camp” and near the Gazanbulag River. In 2015–2016, nine burial mounds were excavated at the “Camp” site. All these mounds had a covering consisting of medium and large stones. The space between the stone rows of mounds was filled with earth. Burial chambers were found in all of them except for kurgans 3 and 8. Despite the fact that mounds 7 and 9 had chambers and equipment, they did not contain human remains. In some mounds (Nos. 6, 7, 9) the burial chambers were located in the center of the mound covering, while in others (Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5) on its slopes. In the burials, representative archaeological materials were revealed, which shed light on the study of religious beliefs, social status and life of ancient inhabitants of the analysed area of Azerbaijan. Samples of ceramic vessels found in the mounds are characteristic to the Khojaly-Gadabay archaeological culture in their shape and content. Apart from pottery, numerous bronze items of jewellery were found in the graves: bracelets, rings, earrings, diadems, flat buttons, headbands, beads. The discovered iron products are represented by knife blades and iron rod. It can be assumed that persons with a special high social status were interred in the Gazanbulag kurgan cemetery. Based on the type, structure, grave goods recovered, as well as the results of the radiocarbon analysis, the analysed burial mounds are mainly dated to the end of the Bronze Age and the begin-ning of the Early Iron Age, precisely to the 10th–9th c. BC.

Минералого-геохимический анализ металлических украшений погребения № 59 Кокпомъягского могильника вымской культуры перми вычегодской* XI—XIV вв.

The article is devoted to the archaeological and mineralogical analysis of metal products from burial No. 59 from the Kokpomyag burial ground of the Vym culture in Vychegda Permian, dating from the mid-12th to the first half of the 13th century. The chronological framework of the burial is determined, a description of the grave goods is given, and imported silver jewelry from the Perm Kama region and Volga Bulgaria is found. Using analytical SEM, 13 artifacts of copper, bronze, brass and silver composition, the phase and chemical composition of the objects have been studied in detail. The results of the research indicate that Perm foundry workers from Vychegda possessed not only the technology of bronze foundry production, but also silver jewelry making.

Social inequality and body mass differences in two post‐Medieval Dutch populations

AbstractAdult body mass is largely related to nutrition levels, which can be affected by external stressors, such as diet, environment, and disease. High‐status and low‐status groups likely had very different nutrition and stress experiences, which might result in differences in population's body mass. Since inequality between social statuses prevailed in Europe in the post‐Medieval period, did these differences result in body mass variations between high‐status and low‐status populations in the Netherlands? In order to answer this question, this research compared body size of two post‐Medieval urban skeletal collections with different social statuses from the Eusebius cemetery of two cemeteries of the 17th–19th centuries: the Arnhem and the Broerenkerk church of Zwolle, the Netherlands. Social statuses of the two collections are estimated based on the burial locations, grave goods, and historical records. Body mass was estimated using both femoral head diameter method and stature/bi‐iliac breadth method. Results have shown no statistically significant differences in body mass between the two samples. Therefore, this research suggests that inequality in post‐Medieval Dutch society did not result in observable population body mass differences in the skeletal collections of different social status groups. It cannot, however, prove that social inequality in populations did not impact body size or health more broadly.

EARLY MEDIEVAL MIRRORS WITH A CENTRAL LOOP FROM THE SUMTSOV KHARKIV MUSEUM OF HISTORY COLLECTION

The archaeological collection of the Sumtsov Kharkiv History Museum contains 69 mirrors with a central loop on the reverse side, which were discovered by museum expedition in 1982—2021 at the Verkhnii Saltiv (VS), Staryyi Saltiv (SS) and Rubizhne burial grounds. 63 mirrors were unearthed in the burial assemblages of the big Verkhnii Saltiv necropolis: 26 mirrors come from 22 catacombs of the burial ground (VS 1), 14 mirrors from 12 catacombs of the third burial ground (VS III), 23 mirrors from 21 catacombs of the fourth burial ground (VS IV). One more mirror comes from the burials of the Rubizhne burial ground and 5 mirrors from the catacombs of the Verkhnii Saltiv necropolis. Most of the mirrors were found intact. Only catacombs 70 (VS 1) and 110 (VS IV) contained the mirrors that were deliberately broken in antiquity. Mirror fragments with traces of being in the fire were found in catacomb 19 of VS III. A half of mirror was found in catacomb 6 of VS III, while a whole mirror was also found in the same assemblage. In all cases, mirrors were part of the grave goods of adult women of reproductive age. Mirrors in most cases were lying face downwards and were located not far from the head of their owner. Mirrors from the museum’s collection are quite diverse in terms of ornamental motifs on the reverse side of HX. There are mirrors in the collection, which according to the classification of V. B. Kovalevska belong to taxa 1, 4a, 4g, 4z, 9b, 10a, 13, 14b, 17v, 20d, 22v, 23b, 27, 31v. The catacomb grave goods shows that mirrors of taxa 1, 4a, 4g, 4z, 96, 13, 22v were widespread among the Alan population throughout the entire existence of the Saltiv culture. Mirrors of taxa 10a, 14v, 17c, 20d, 22v, 23v, 27, 31v, and mirrors with lotus-shaped ornament are more typical of the Saltiv assemblages of the 1st century. At the same time, during this period the most popular the mirrors of 17в taxon were, which numerically prevail over mirrors of all other types. Imported (Chinese) mirrors in the Saltiv assemblages are represented in the form of replicas, which were made too far from the original. All replicas of imported mirrors were found in burials belonging to representatives of the social and property upper class of the Saltiv society in the region.

Reconstructing palaeodiet from the skeleton with stable isotopes - on the interpretation of multi-dimensional datasets.

The analysis of stable isotopes in archaeological human and animal skeletal finds is a routine method in the field of archaeometry. Multi-dimensional datasets are this way easily generated what, however, demands new interpretive approaches. Cluster analyses are capable of detecting multi-dimensional similarities among the isotopic signatures and are thus superior over traditional uni- and bivariate evaluations. This study aims to demonstrate the potential of Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) clustering for palaeodiet reconstruction. We reevaluate previously published isotopic datasets obtained on early medieval skeletal finds from Upper Bavaria (Germany), also including some individuals from "special burials", e.g., from separated burial sites or circular enclosures. This manageable and easy-to-understand dataset contains four-dimensional isotope signatures (δ13Ccollagen, δ15N, δ13Ccarbonate, δ18Ocarbonate) of 27 individuals. We illustrate the iterative process of cluster analysis and the additional benefit of its outcome for the interpretation of the data. This includes the recognition of noisy isotope data and of those isotope systems that are essential. In our example, three isotope systems were required for a correct palaeodiet reconstruction. While δ13Ccollagen and δ15N values are commonly used for palaeodiet reconstructions, δ13Ccarbonate values, including additional information on dietary carbohydrates and fats, are required for a meaningful cluster separation and, thus, the interpretation of the individuals' diet. No general correlation between dietary quality and grave goods was detectable.

Inequalities in wealth distribution within Imperial Assyrian graves

Across more than seven centuries (c. 1350–600 BC), the Assyrian Empire established political dominance and cultural influence over many settlements in the Ancient Near East. Assyrian policies of resource extraction, including taxation and tribute, have been extensively analysed in textual and art historical sources. This article assesses the impact of these policies on patterns of wealth within mortuary material—one of the most conservative forms of culture, deeply rooted in group identity. The author argues that a trend of decreasing quality and quantity of grave goods over time supports models emphasising the heavy economic burden of Assyrian administration on its subjects.