Granule Morphology Research Articles

Preparation of lauric acid esterified starch by ethanol solvothermal process and its Pickering emulsion

In this paper, the esterification modification of different kinds of starches such as waxy maize, normal maize, high-amylose maize, cassava and potato in high temperature closed system were studied by solvothermal method. The oil-in-water Pickering emulsion were prepared with esterified starches as granule stabilizer. The microscopic state of granules in the emulsion and the physical and oxidation stability of emulsion were studied. The results show that starches are not gelatinized and can be esterified at a temperature (100 °C) much higher than that of gelatinization, and the granule morphology is almost unchanged. DS (degree of substitution) values of esterified starches range from 0.0333 to 0.0512. Pickering emulsion with 50 vol% oil volume fraction prepared with 3.0 wt% granule concentration did not show any instability such as oil-water separation after storage at room temperature for 30 days. Atomic force microscope (AFM) analysis showed that all esterified starch granules had the characteristics of granular cold-water swelling starch (GCWSS). The granules completely swelled into a dense molecular chain in the emulsion, and this three-dimensional network structure improved the stability of emulsion. Therefore, the preparation of esterified starch granules by ethanol solvothermal method is a simple and effective method.

Exogenous Application of Methyl Jasmonate Promotes Yield and Grain Quality of Rice under Terminal Drought Stress

Exogenous application of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) improves rice drought tolerance, but its effects on rice yield and quality under drought stress during the reproductive phase remain unclear. A pot experiment was conducted to measure rice yield, grain quality, and starch physicochemical properties under three treatments: continuous flooding irrigation throughout the whole growth season (CF), ten days of −40 kPa drought stress at the heading stage (DS), and foliar spraying 100 μmol L−1 MeJA on the first three days of the ten-day −40 kPa heading stage drought stress (DM). An inbred japonica rice variety, Huaidao 5, was the experimental material, and each treatment had 11 replicates for sampling. The results indicated that DS significantly reduced rice yield and quality compared to CF. With increases in superoxide dismutase (+22.2%), peroxidase activities (+10.5%), catalase (+5.0%), and proline content (+5.7%), DM significantly increased 1000-grain weight (+8.6%), filled grain percentage (+3.6%), and yield (+11.1%) compared with DS. Regarding grain quality, DM significantly decreased the chalkiness degree (−12.3%) and protein content (−3.9%) but increased the amylose content (+17.2%) and taste value (+7.3%) relative to DS. In addition, DM improved breakdown viscosity (+17.8%), gelatinization enthalpy (+17.2%), retrogradation enthalpy (+28.0%), 1045/1022 cm−1 ratio (+3.0%), and starch granule morphology compared to DS. In conclusion, exogenous application of 100 μmol L−1 MeJA enhanced the antioxidant capacity of rice leaves, and thus improved starch physicochemical properties to increase grain yield and quality under terminal drought stress.

Mathematical model and numerical investigation of the influence of spray drying parameters on granule sizes of mold powder

In this work, the formation mechanism of the droplet-to-granule was investigated in detail based on mold powder manufacturing. A specific mathematical model of two-stage spray drying was established to describe droplet and granule motion, heat and mass transfer, and granule morphology during spray drying. Then, the relationships between spray drying parameters (inlet temperature, atomization pressure, slurry mass flow rate) and the properties of the drying tower (temperature and velocity fields) and mold powder granules (temperature, evaporation rates, moisture content, and diameter) were simulated and calculated using ANSYS/Fluent software. To ensure that the granule size of mold powder was controlled within the ideal range (0.2–0.6 mm) for producing granules with appropriate mechanical and metallurgical properties, the following optimum spray drying parameters were chosen based on the results of the numerical simulation: inlet temperatures, 873 K; slurry atomization pressure, 1.8 MPa; slurry mass flow rate, 0.05 kg s−1. Among these parameters, the slurry mass flow rate has the most significant effect on granule size.

The OsNAC24-OsNAP protein complex activates OsGBSSI and OsSBEI expression to fine-tune starch biosynthesis in rice endosperm.

Starch accounts for up to 90% of the dry weight of rice endosperm and is a key determinant of grain quality. Although starch biosynthesis enzymes have been comprehensively studied, transcriptional regulation of starch-synthesis enzyme-coding genes (SECGs) is largely unknown. In this study, we explored the role of a NAC transcription factor, OsNAC24, in regulating starch biosynthesis in rice. OsNAC24 is highly expressed in developing endosperm. The endosperm of osnac24 mutants is normal in appearance as is starch granule morphology, while total starch content, amylose content, chain length distribution of amylopectin and the physicochemical properties of the starch are changed. In addition, the expression of several SECGs was altered in osnac24 mutant plants. OsNAC24 is a transcriptional activator that targets the promoters of six SECGs; OsGBSSI, OsSBEI, OsAGPS2, OsSSI, OsSSIIIa and OsSSIVb. Since both the mRNA and protein abundances of OsGBSSI and OsSBEI were decreased in the mutants, OsNAC24 functions to regulate starch synthesis mainly through OsGBSSI and OsSBEI. Furthermore, OsNAC24 binds to the newly identified motifs TTGACAA, AGAAGA and ACAAGA as well as the core NAC-binding motif CACG. Another NAC family member, OsNAP, interacts with OsNAC24 and coactivates target gene expression. Loss-of-function of OsNAP led to altered expression in all tested SECGs and reduced the starch content. These results demonstrate that the OsNAC24-OsNAP complex plays key roles in fine-tuning starch synthesis in rice endosperm and further suggest that manipulating the OsNAC24-OsNAP complex regulatory network could be a potential strategy for breeding rice cultivars with improved cooking and eating quality.

Increasing amyloplast size in wheat endosperm through mutation of PARC6 affects starch granule morphology.

The determination of starch granule morphology in plants is poorly understood. The amyloplasts of wheat endosperm contain large discoid A-type granules and small spherical B-type granules. To study the influence of amyloplast structure on these distinct morphological types, we isolated a mutant in durum wheat (Triticum turgidum) defective in the plastid division protein PARC6, which had giant plastids in both leaves and endosperm. Endosperm amyloplasts of the mutant contained more A- and B-type granules than those of the wild-type. The mutant had increased A- and B-type granule size in mature grains, and its A-type granules had a highly aberrant, lobed surface. This morphological defect was already evident at early stages of grain development and occurred without alterations in polymer structure and composition. Plant growth and grain size, number and starch content were not affected in the mutants despite the large plastid size. Interestingly, mutation of the PARC6 paralog, ARC6, did not increase plastid or starch granule size. We suggest TtPARC6 can complement disrupted TtARC6 function by interacting with PDV2, the outer plastid envelope protein that typically interacts with ARC6 to promote plastid division. We therefore reveal an important role of amyloplast structure in starch granule morphogenesis in wheat.

Bactericidal Activity of Superabsorbent Polymer Granules for Their Applications in Respiratory Fluid Solidification Systems.

Disposal of respiratory secretions from patients having contagious diseases (e.g., COVID-19 and tuberculosis) poses a high risk of infection for healthcare workers. AcryloSorb canister liner bags are highly efficient for the safe handling of contagious respiratory secretions via solidification and disinfection processes. The canister liner bags are lined with disinfectant-impregnated superabsorbent polymer (DSAP) granules. The liner structure in the bag has a patented design that has upward progressive absorbent availability (Indian Patent application # 202041019872). AcryloSorb canister liner bags can decontaminate the fluid secretions absorbed in the bag and solidify within 10 min. The present study focused on the bactericidal effect of DSAP using Gram-negative bacteria, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Gram-positive bacteria, methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Disinfectants such as peracetic acid (ethaneperoxic acid), sodium dichloroisocyanurate (sodium 3,5-dichloro-2,4,6-trioxo-1,3,5-triazinan-1-ide), rose bengal (disodium; 2,3,4,5-tetrachloro-6-(2,4,5,7-tetraiodo-3-oxido-6-oxoxanthen-9-yl) benzoate), and N,N-dimethyl-N-[3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl]octadecan-1-aminium chloride at different weight ratios were impregnated in superabsorbent polymer (SAP) granules. The bactericidal activities of DSAP were studied along with its solidification capacity. Disinfectants showed different bactericidal activities when impregnated with SAP granules. For example, peracetic acid-impregnated SAP granules (DSAP-P) showed 100% bactericidal activity for both Klebsiella pneumoniae and MRSA at 0.5 wt % peracetic acid. Sodium dichloroisocyanurate-impregnated SAP granules showed 100% bactericidal activity only at 5 wt % sodium dichloroisocyanurate (DSAP-S5). Even though peracetic acid was highly effective, SAP granules collapsed when impregnated with peracetic acid. The ease of handling, disinfection efficacy, and preserving the morphology of SAP granules make DSAP-S5, a suitable candidate for AcryloSorb canister liner bags.

Effect of Modifications on the Chemical Composition, X-Ray Diffraction Pattern and Scanning Morphology of Starches from Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta and Xanthosoma sagittifolium)

The effect of annealing, heat moisture treatment and citric acid on major physicochemical properties of cocoyam starch was investigated. This was done in order to establish the optimum processing condition with the aim of enhancing the utilization capacity of the starch. Starch extracted from red and white Cocoyam (Tania) Xanthosoma sagittifolium and Taro Colocasia esculenta cultivars respectively were subjected to modification using annealing, heat moisture treatment and citric acid methods. The modified and native starch samples were analyzed for chemical composition using standard methods, likewise the x-ray diffraction pattern and starch granules morphology of the samples were assessed. The result showed that amylose content ranged from 24.81 - 38.16%, protein 0.00 – 0.77%, ash 1.19 – 3.16 and carbohydrate 84.19 – 86.79%. The X-ray diffraction patterns of red and white cocoyam starches showed a strong peak at 15o, 18o and 23o (2ø) indicating A-type starch. Colocasia esculenta starch also displayed A-type diffraction pattern with additional peak at 24o. The modification methods used did not change the diffraction pattern of the starch samples but only influenced the intensity of the diffraction peak. The scanning electron micrographs showed that the starch granules were small to medium in size with most having irregular shape and smooth surface. Annealing and citric acid caused little noticeable fractures on some granules without compromising starch granules integrity. Heat moisture treatment however resulted in evident loss of starch granules integrity. The modification methods affected the physicochemical properties of cocoyam starch samples in a varying pattern which may qualify the starch samples for use in different food and non-food applications.

Morphological Features and Morphometric Parameters of Peripheral Blood Eosinophiles in Raccoon Dogs <i>Nyctereutes procyonoides</i> (Grey, 1834)

The aim of this work was to analyze the morphology and morphometric parameters of peripheral blood eosinophils and eosinophilic granules in raccoon dogs Nyctereutes procyonoides (Grey, 1834). On blood smears stained by Pappenheim, the composition of the leukocyte formula was determined, the morphological features and morphometric parameters of eosinophils and their granules were evaluated. Cytochemical methods revealed the localization of peroxidase and cationic proteins in eosinophils. ANOVA was used to assess the effect of sex. As a result of the study, it was found that raccoon dogs are characterized by a high relative content of eosinophils (7–10%), as well as the presence of large secretory granules in them. Along with the common eosinophils, there were cells with abnormal granularity (low number of secretory granules, the presence of vacuole-like granules that did not stain with the dyes used). The influence of sex was expressed in a higher proportion of eosinophils with abnormal granularity in males compared to females, while the latter had higher morphometric parameters (the number and average area of granules in one cell, the ratio of the area occupied by granules to the area of the cell). Since the causes of abnormally granular eosinophils in raccoon dogs are not completely clear, there is a need for further research into this issue.

Preparation and characterization of achira starch oxidized by different concentration of sodium hypochlorite

AbstractIn this study, achira (Canna edulis) starch was oxidized by sodium hypochlorite and the effects of different concentration of oxidation agent (1, 2, 3 and 5%) on the physicochemical properties, morphological properties and crystallinity of achira starch (AS) was investigated. The carbonyl and carboxyl content, starch colour parameters, swelling capacity, solubility, IR spectra, SEM and XRD of native and oxidized achira starch (OAS) were evaluated. IR spectra of oxidized starch samples showed a new absorption peak which was assigned to the characteristic peak of carbonyl C=O, proved that starch had been oxidized. At lower concentration of sodium hypochlorite, there was no clearly change on the morphology of OAS granules, however, at higher concentration of oxidant (5%), there were some indentations and cracks on the surface of OAS‐5 starch granules. Oxidation with sodium hypochlorite has no significant effect on the crystallinity of the starch. Both AS and OAS granules showed the typical B‐type X‐ray diffractogram, indicating that the oxidation occurred in the amorphous region. After treating with oxidized agent, content of carboxyl groups increased significantly, whereas content of carbonyl groups slightly increased. The total oxidation degree of OAS samples increased with the increase of the concentration of hypochlorite treatment. Oxidation with sodium hypochlorite clearly increased both the swelling capacity and solubility of achira starch. Whiteness of starch was also improved.

The Effect of Acetylation on the Physicochemical Properties of Chickpea Starch.

The effect of acetylation on the physicochemical properties of chickpea starch was studied. After the chickpea starch was acetylated, the basic properties were measured. When the degree of substitution (DS) was 0.1004 and the temperature was 95 °C, the solubility and swelling power of starch were 19.6% and 21.4 g/g, respectively. The freeze-thaw stability of acetylated starch paste increased with the increase in the degree of substitution. The surface morphology of starch granules changed, but the crystalline morphology did not change, and the C-type crystalline structure was still maintained. There are three new absorption peaks in the infrared spectroscopy of starch, and the -COCH3 group was introduced. With the increase in DS, the viscosity of esterified chickpea starch decreased gradually. Compared with unmodified chickpea starch, the ability to form gel was poor.

Changes in morphological and structural characteristics of high amylose maize starch in alkaline solution at different temperatures

In this study, high amylose maize starch(HAMS)was treated by Hydrothermal-alkali. SEM, SAXS, XRD, FTIR, LC-Raman, 13C CP/MAS NMR, GPC and TGA were used to study the changes in the granules and structure of HAMS. The results show that the granule morphology, lamellar structure, and birefringence of HAMS remained intact at 30 °C and 45 °C. With increasing temperature, the starch granules are fragmented, and the crystallinity, DD, FWHM values, molecular weight, and thermal stability of HAMS decrease. The double helical structure dissociated, and the content of amorphous regions increased, indicating the from order to the disorder of the HAMS structure. A similar annealing behavior occurred in HAMS at 45 °C, with the rearrangement of amylose and amylopectin occurring. At 75 °C and 90 °C, the short-chain starch produced by chain breakage regroups to form an ordered double helix structure. In general, the granule structure level of HAMS was damaged to different degrees at varying temperatures. HAMS showed gelatinization behavior in alkaline solutions when the temperature is 60 °C. This study expects to provide a model for the gelatinization theory of HAMS systems.

Improved functional properties of Dioscorea alata var. Purpurea flour after heat moisture treatment: Thermal, pasting, and granule stability

Heat moisture treatment (HMT) of flour is a critical process in the food industry that affects the functionality and quality of flour-based products. The study aims to elucidate the complex interactions between heat, moisture, and flour components, including proteins, starches, and lipids, to gain insights into the mechanisms that influence the functional properties of treated flour. By enhancing this understanding, it will be possible to optimize the HMT process parameters and manipulate the flour characteristics to meet the specific requirements of different food applications. Purple yam flour was successfully modified by heat–moisture-treatment (HMT) with an autoclave (AHMT) and oven (OHMT) as thermal sources. After HMT treatment, purple yam flour was analyzed for oil (OAC) and water (WAC) absorption capacity and several related characterizations such as thermal character using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), surface structural using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and paste properties using Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA). The findings have shown that O-HMT and A-HMT flours had an increasement in all the OAC, WAC, and thermal characteristics (To, Tp, Tc, ΔT) as compared to the original flour with an increment in gelatinization temperature by 1–4 °C. There were no alterations in granule morphology with O-HMT and A-HMT treatments and they demonstrated only an accumulation at 30% moisture content treatment. Pasting characteristics presented an increasement in dough processing temperatures causing both modification treatments within the range of 3–15 °C. Meanwhile, peak, trough, breakdown, back, and final viscosities were decreased due to O-HMT and A-HMT treatments. The present study demonstrates that both treatments enhanced the performance properties of purple yam flour and that could be considered safe methods for modifying the functional flours derived from purple yam.

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES AND POTENTIAL UTILIZATION OF STARCH ISOLATED FROM CHAYOTE FRUIT

Chayote, Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw., is anoverlooked food‎ plant despite its various ‎potentialities. This study investigated the characteristics of starch isolated from ‎chayote fruit cultivated in Algiers which is known for its Mediterranean ‎climate. The granules morphology, functional properties and amylose content of Algerian chayote fruit starch were examined. Spherical, oval and polygonal shapes and smooth surface were observed using three imaging techniques: a normal and polarized light microscopy with Lucia ‎software and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).‎ Starch granules size was in the rang 3.56-‎‎37.24 μm, and for the chayote tubers, it‎ was 7-50 μm. The amylose content (‎20.36%‎) ‎‎is different from that of the chayote tubers (12.81%), but ‎close‎‎‎ to those of ‎conventional sources. The Algerian chayote fruit starch showed higher swelling strength and lower ‎melting ‎index.‎ The Rapid Visco Analyzer pasting profile revealed a lower peak ‎viscosity (2158.3 cP) than that from chayote tubers (14746 cP).‎ However, Differential Scanning Calorimetry analysis showed higher gelatinisation temperatures (66.89 °‎C) and ‎transition enthalpy (‎15.79‎ J/g)‎. X-ray diffraction profile showed B-type.‎ The digestibility (D∞), hydrolysis index, HI, and average glycemic index, (GI), were estimated at 50.66 %, 52.16% and 70.16 ‎%‎ respectively.‎ The results showed that starch has an ‎acceptable nutritional value with significant in vitro digestion properties and it is suitable for human health and nutrition.‎ The starch of Algerian chayote fruit showed interesting ‎functional characteristics which makes it suitable for relevant applications in both the field food and cosmetics industries. It can, also, be a raw material for starch processing.

Arabidopsis thaliana B-GATA factors repress starch synthesis and gravitropic growth responses.

Plants perceive the direction of gravity during skotomorphogenic growth, and of gravity and light during photomorphogenic growth. Gravity perception occurs through the sedimentation of starch granules in shoot endodermal and root columella cells. In this study, we demonstrate that the Arabidopsis thaliana GATA factors GNC (GATA, NITRATE-INDUCIBLE, CARBON METABOLISM-INVOLVED) and GNL/CGA1 (GNC-LIKE/CYTOKININ-RESPONSIVE GATA1) repress starch granule growth and amyloplast differentiation in endodermal cells. In our comprehensive study, we analysed gravitropic responses in the shoot, root and hypocotyl. We performed an RNA-seq analysis, used advanced microscopy techniques to examine starch granule size, number and morphology and quantified transitory starch degradation patterns. Using transmission electron microscopy, we examined amyloplast development. Our results indicate that the altered gravitropic responses in hypocotyls, shoots and roots of gnc gnl mutants and GNL overexpressors are due to the differential accumulation of starch granules observed in the GATA genotypes. At the whole-plant level, GNC and GNL play a more complex role in starch synthesis, degradation and starch granule initiation. Our findings suggest that the light-regulated GNC and GNL help balance phototropic and gravitropic growth responses after the transition from skotomorphogenesis to photomorphogenesis by repressing the growth of starch granules.

Synthesis and characterization of glyceryl starch and determination of molar substitution

In this work, glyceryl starch was prepared by changing the reactant ratio (v/w) of etherifying agent/starch using chlorinated glycerol as etherifying agent. The molar substitution of glyceryl starch was determined. The modified colorimetric method for the determination of molar substitution was described. The glyceryl starch was characterized by using FT-IR and 1H NMR spectroscopy. Experimental analyses were performed to investigate the effect of dihydroxypropylation on a range of starch properties, including degree of crystallinity, granule morphology, paste clarity, and retrogradation stability and compare them with those of the native corn starch.

Evaluation of treatment methods for spiking deoxynivalenol (DON) in single corn kernels

Current research on deoxynivalenol (DON), a trichothecene secondary metabolite produced by the Fusarium species in corn grains, relies on the time-consuming field inoculation of Fusarium species with unpredictable and low recovery rates of DON in grains. The objective of this study was to evaluate three methods: soaking whole grains, soaking cracked grains, and injection in three solvents (distilled water, methanol, and acetonitrile) at three toxin concentration levels (1, 5, and 10 µg/g) for facilitating DON absorption in corn grains. The effectiveness of each treatment method and the performance of each solvent in aiding DON absorption were analysed and compared with the recovery rates of DON in the treated corn grains. The treatment methods, solvent, and DON concentration in solvent had significant effect on the recovery rate of DON in treated kernels. Injecting whole grains showed the highest recovery rates of DON (60%–108%) followed by soaking cracked grains (10%–87%) and whole grain (10%–72%) treatment methods. Distilled water showed the highest recovery rates in both soaking (53%–87%) and injection (74%–105%) treatment methods followed by methanol (18%–68% for soaking; 66%–103% for injection) and acetonitrile (10%–36% for soaking; 61%–108% for injection). Water dispersed the arrangement of starch granules but caused no changes in their surface morphology. Methanol and acetonitrile showed disruptive effects on the surface morphology of starch granules.

Creating high-resistant starch rice by simultaneous editing of SS3a and SS3b.

Creating high-resistant starch rice by simultaneous editing of SS3a and SS3b.

OsMADS1 Regulates Grain Quality, Gene Expressions, and Regulatory Networks of Starch and Storage Protein Metabolisms in Rice.

OsMADS1 plays a vital role in regulating floret development and grain shape, but whether it regulates rice grain quality still remains largely unknown. Therefore, we used comprehensive molecular genetics, plant biotechnology, and functional omics approaches, including phenotyping, mapping-by-sequencing, target gene seed-specific RNAi, transgenic experiments, and transcriptomic profiling to answer this biological and molecular question. Here, we report the characterization of the 'Oat-like rice' mutant, with poor grain quality, including chalky endosperms, abnormal morphology and loose arrangement of starch granules, and lower starch content but higher protein content in grains. The poor grain quality of Oat-like rice was found to be caused by the mutated OsMADS1Olr allele through mapping-by-sequencing analysis and transgenic experiments. OsMADS1 protein is highly expressed in florets and developing seeds. Both OsMADS1-eGFP and OsMADS1Olr-eGFP fusion proteins are localized in the nucleus. Moreover, seed-specific RNAi of OsMADS1 also caused decreased grain quality in transgenic lines, such as the Oat-like rice. Further transcriptomic profiling between Oat-like rice and Nipponbare grains revealed that OsMADS1 regulates gene expressions and regulatory networks of starch and storage protein metabolisms in rice grains, hereafter regulating rice quality. In conclusion, our results not only reveal the crucial role and preliminary mechanism of OsMADS1 in regulating rice grain quality but also highlight the application potentials of OsMADS1 and the target gene seed-specific RNAi system in improving rice grain quality by molecular breeding.

Influence of pre- or post-electron beam irradiation on heat-moisture treated maize starch for multiscale structure, physicochemical properties and digestibility

Electron beam irradiation (EBI) as a green technological method for starch modification can generate starch-based materials with new functions. This study modified maize starch by heat-moisture treatment (HMT) for 1 h and 3 h, and EBI with various intensities (5 kGy and 10 kGy), and their effects of treatment sequence on the multiscale structure, physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility were investigated. EBI or HMT alone did not change the granule morphology and crystalline type, but reduced the crystallinity and molecular weight and increased the resistant starch content. HMT alone had no significant effect on the solubility of starch, while EBI led to a considerable increase in the solubility of maize starch. The combined treatment of EBI and HMT aggravated apparent viscosity reduction, and the HMT starch pretreated with EBI had a smaller molecular weight and lower viscosity. In contrast, post-EBI samples had higher solubility and RS content. Primarily, it has excellent potential for producing low-viscosity and high-solubility starch foods.

Comparing integrated continuous process “LaVortex®” and conventional batch processes for the pharmaceutical manufacturing of acetaminophen oral dosage formulations: Challenges and pharmaceutical properties of the granular and tableted products

LaVortex® was developed as a novel free-flow continuous granulation/drying (CGD) system. In this study, we compared the advantages and disadvantages of granules prepared by continuous and batchwise manufacturing systems. Granules containing 30 % acetaminophen were manufactured under various operating conditions using CGD system, with comparison granules manufactured using conventional batch systems that involve a combination of fluid bed granulation (FG), agitation granulation (AG), continuous drying, fluid bed drying, and/or shelf drying, after which the pharmaceutical properties of each type of manufactured granule were evaluated. Cumulative particle-size distributions were determined by sieving, powder flowabilities were determined by angle of repose measurements, and scanning electron microscopy was employed to examine granule morphologies. The CGD system produced fine-to-large spherical or ellipsoidal granules that exhibited excellent powder fluidities and tabletabilities that are almost identical to those of AG granules. Moreover, the CGD granules exhibited better powder flowability than the FG granules. The addition of water promoted CGD-granule growth and improved significantly powder flowability, and did a little in tabletability. Small spherical granules with good fluidity suitable for fine-particle-coating core materials, or large granules with excellent fluidity and tabletability, were prepared by adjusting the values of the elemental parameters of the CGD process.