Grammatical Theory Research Articles

Presupposed free choice and the theory of scalar implicatures

A disjunctive sentence like Olivia took Logic or Algebra conveys that Olivia didn’t take both classes (exclusivity) and that the speaker doesn’t know which of the two classes she took (ignorance). The corresponding sentence with a possibility modal, Olivia can take Logic or Algebra, conveys instead that she can take Logic and that she can take Algebra (free choice). These exclusivity, ignorance and free choice inferences are argued by many to be scalar implicatures. Recent work has looked at cases in which exclusivity and ignorance appear to be computed instead at the presupposition level, independently from the assertion. On the basis of those data, Spector and Sudo (Linguist Philos 40(5):473–517, 2017) have argued for a hybrid account relying on a pragmatic principle for deriving implicatures in the presupposition. In this paper, we observe that a sentence like Noah is unaware that Olivia can take Logic or Algebra has a reading on which free choice appears in the presupposition, but not in the assertion, and we show that deriving this reading is challenging on Spector and Sudo’s (2017) hybrid account. Following the dialectic in Fox (Presupposition and implicature in compositional semantics, Palgrave, London, pp 71–120, 2007), we argue against a pragmatic approach to presupposition-based implicatures on the ground that it is not able to account for presupposed free choice. In addition, we raise a novel challenge for Spector and Sudo’s (2017) account coming from the conflicting presupposed ignorance triggered by sentences like #Noah is unaware that I have a son or a daughter, which is infelicitous even if it’s not common knowledge whether the speaker has a son or a daughter. More generally, our data reveals a systematic parallelism between the assertion and presupposition levels in terms of exclusivity, ignorance, and free choice. We argue that such parallels call for a unified analysis and we sketch how a grammatical theory of implicatures where meaning strengthening operates in a similar way at both levels (Gajewski and Sharvit in Nat Lang Semant 20(1):31–57, 2012; Magri in A theory of individual-level predicates based on blind mandatory scalar implicatures, MIT dissertation, 2009; Marty in Implicatures in the DP domain, MIT dissertation, 2017) can account for such parallels.

What participles are a mixture of

Abstract It is commonly assumed that participles show a mixture of verbal and adjectival properties, but the issue of how this mixed nature can best be captured is anything but settled. Analyses range from the purely adjectival to the purely verbal with various shades in between. This lack of consensus is at least partly due to the fact that participles are used in a variety of ways and that an analysis which fits one of them is not necessarily equally plausible for the other. In an effort to overcome the resulting fragmentation this paper proposes an analysis that covers all uses of the participles, from the adnominal over the predicative to the free adjunct uses, including also the nominalized ones. To keep it feasible we focus on one language, namely Dutch. With the help of a treebank we first identify the uses of the Dutch participles and describe their properties in informal terms. In a second step we provide an analysis in terms of the notation of Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar. A key property of the analysis is the differentiation between core uses and grammaticalized uses. The treatment of the latter is influenced by insights from Grammaticalization Theory.

Research on Translation Processing of Complex Long Sentences Based on Multi-strategy Analysis Algorithm

Syntax analysis depends on a certain grammatical theory. In formal grammar system, dependency grammar has gradually become the focus of researchers. In this paper, an automatic translation method of English-Chinese terms based on multi-strategy fusion is proposed, which uses the term case base to optimize the translation of terms with low evaluation scores obtained from the translation quality estimation method. Through the levenshtein algorithm, we find a number of terms translation examples with high similarity with the source language of the terms to be optimized, including grammatical semantic features, sentence length, punctuation marks, functional words and context conditions, etc., to segment and simplify complex long sentences and compound generate translations. By designing the same knowledge representation for different languages, the algorithm can be universally used for translation systems of different languages.

Morpho-syntactic and semantic properties of finiteness in Telugu relative clauses

One of the most challenging and interesting notions in descriptive and theoretical linguistics is finiteness. In Telugu, it doesn’t contribute towards direct analysis and is a complicated phenomenon. This paper explores how different grammatical theories represent the finiteness; the nature of the finiteness in relation to Telugu relative clauses; and how morpho-syntactic and semantic properties decide whether a clause is finite or non-finite. It also investigates the notion of finiteness and formulates criteria to decide it in Telugu. It further explains two types of relative clauses namely Dravidian (Dr) type and Indo-Aryan (IA) type and takes up the Indigenous Dr type first and sees to what extent it meets the criteria for finiteness. Second, the IA type that Telugu and Dr Languages borrowed from Sanskrit is in some ways different from the original IA correlative although it is modelled on that pattern. Dr correlative is always pre-nominal and it uses an interrogative pronoun unlike the correlatives in Hindi and other IA languages which use relative pronouns. However, based on theoretical and empirical evidence, this paper provides a description of both these Telugu relative clauses and explores how finiteness is realized in terms of formal and functional perspectives.

Scalar Implicature, Hurford's Constraint, Contrastiveness and How They All Come Together

Disjunction with two scalar items, such assome or all of the books, has been regarded as evidence for the grammatical theory of scalar implicatures (e.g., Chierchia et al.,2012). Hurford's Constraint (Hurford,1974) provides that disjuncts are banned from having an entailing relation, and to make such a disjunction comply with Hurford's Constraint, the meaning ofsomemust be locally strengthened. Interestingly, however, the order of disjoined scalar items is not free, as noted by Singh (2008). The order in which a weaker scalar item comes first followed by its stronger scalar mate is better than the other order. I present an analysis of this ordering restriction based on the novel observation that the restriction is not only found in disjunction but in contrastive environments in general. I propose that contrasting a linguistic expression requires a “contrast antecedent,” which must elicit a set of mutually exclusive alternatives that includes the meaning of the contrasted expression. It will be demonstrated how the mutual exclusivity requirement presents a principled explanation for the ordering asymmetry as well as Hurford's Constraint itself, which indicates that the root of the constraint is not in disjunction but in contrastiveness. One of the indispensable ingredients in the proposal is the grammatical/conventional generation of scalar implicatures, as the strengthened meaning must be the basis of alternatives. The paper also provides a speculative analysis ofonly, in which I suggest that the process of exhaustification in the grammatical theory of scalar implicatures should not be characterized as the implicitonly, the semantic contributions of which are more different than commonly assumed.

Grammatical theory: From transformational grammar to constraint-based approaches by Stefan Müller

Grammatical theory: From transformational grammar to constraint-based approaches by Stefan Müller

РЕЦЕНЗИЯ НА КНИГУ: АЛПАТОВ В.М. СЛОВО И ЧАСТИ РЕЧИ. М.: ИЗДАТЕЛЬСКИЙ ДОМ ЯСК, 2018. 256 С.

Vladimir M. Alpatov’s new monograph addresses typological and theoretical issues related to the basic morphological units – word and parts of speech. It elaborates on his previous work on morphological theory, typology, and historiography of linguistic traditions. The monograph consists of an introduction and three chapters. The first two chapters, “The Problem of Word” and “The Problem of Parts of Speech” address the differences in theoretical approaches, evidence from independent linguistic traditions with particular reference to the Japanese indigenous linguistics, and data from psycholinguistic research. In the third chapter, “Anthropocentric and systemocentric approaches to language”, the author claims that the morphological logocentric and non-logocentric approaches are instances of the two more general approaches to language, respectively. In spite of some criticism, the reviewer concludes that the monograph makes much progress in understanding the structure and typology of the morphological elements, and similarities and difference among national linguistic traditions and grammatical theories.

«Омонимы», «синонимы» и «паронимы» в позднеантичной логике и грамматической теории

The subject of this article is the interpretation of the concepts “homonym”, “synonym” and “paronym” in the logic and grammatical theory of the Late Ancient / early Byzantine period (3rd–6th c.). Within the framework of the logical tradition, the theory of homonymy, synonymy and paronymy is developed, first of all, in the commentaries to Aristotle’s “Categories” written by Porphyry, Ammonius, Simplicius, etc., within the framework of grammatical theory – in the “Art of Grammar” by Dionysius of Thrace and its Byzantine scholia to it. Analysis of these texts shows that both disciplines paid great attention to these concepts: they were embedded in a broader terminological context; their definitions were refined and detailed; various methods of classification of homonyms and paronyms were developed. Many issues have been the subject of controversy and disagreement, for example, the problem of the relationship between metaphor, analogy and homonymy, or the methods of classification of homonyms. Significant disagreements persisted between the two disciplines: from the point of view of grammar and logic, all three concepts were interpreted differently, but the interpretation of synonymy differed most clearly. Contemporaries were aware of these contradictions between logic and grammar, noted and analyzed them.

Achievements of the academic grammar school

This study aims at investigating the development of grammatical theory at the Institute of the Ukrainian Language for the last 30 years. The paper summarizes achievements in grammar theory from applying the functional, i.e., semantic and grammatical, approach developed by I.R. Vykhovanetsʹ to differentiating units into word and nonword classes and distinguishing morphological categories of major word classes. This facilitated the establishment of the theoretical basis of functional and categorical morphology. The author analyses studies in formal grammatical, semantic, functional, categorical, deri vational, and anthropocentric syntax that attest to the multidimensional growth of a syntactic theory and main aspects of the Ukrainian word formation on the basis of semantic and categorical syntax and a formant- and stem-based derivatology. Some of the latest multi-pronged processes in word formation reflect dynamics of word formation rules, the replenishment of word formation resources, and the development of the word-formation system of Standard Ukrainian. The solving of a complex set of theoretical issues in the modern Ukrainian word-formation introduced the methodological foundations for the recent normative description of the word formation system of Standard Ukrainian. The article addresses issues in studies on applied grammar determined by the process of glo balization and democratization of the Ukrainian society and the needs of Modern Ukrainian language practice to be met. Particular importance is attached to the grammatical prescriptive norms in the professional use, the actualization of case forms appearing in the passive vocabulary, and the dynamics of morphological and syntactic norms in various functional and stylistic dimensions of Standard Ukrainian. Keywords: functional grammar, functional morphology, functional syntax, categorical grammar, categorical syntax, categorical word formation, classification of parts of speech, morphological categories.

Grammaticalization degrees in Catalan anar vs. estar + adjective in the 19th and 20th centuries: A language contact, corpus-based distributional approach

The present study constitutes an exploratory analysis of the use of the Catalan constructions anar (‘to go’) + adjective and estar (‘to be’) + adjective in writing during the 19th and 20th centuries. In modern Catalan, anar and estar can be used before an adjective as copulas, with an identical or similar meaning (e.g., en Joan va begut, en Joan esta begut ‘John is drunk’). Both constructions show evidence of being highly grammaticalized and are apparently found in free variation rather than complementary distribution. However, a closer approach seems to reveal certain underlying linguistic factors that might be informing such contrast, specifically within the semantic-pragmatic sphere. This is here explored using the narrow theory of grammaticalization (Hopper & Traugott 2003), a multistage process by which lexical (i.e., contextual) items eventually become functional (i.e., grammatical) over time. A corpus-based search was conducted using the electronic version of the Corpus Textual Informatitzat de la Llengua Catalana (CTILC), which comprises literary and non-literary texts published between 1833 and 1988. Anar + adjective and estar + adjective tokens were obtained from a sample of texts, then sorted into four different groups corresponding to century halves. The search results from the corpus were randomly sorted in terms of genre and date and, from these, the top 250 tokens on the list of results for each construction were selected and subsequently analyzed. Whereas few instances of both constructions are found overall in the first half of the 19th century, estar already prevails over anar when followed by an adjective. During the first half of the 20th century, however, this trend starts to be reversed. This suggests the possibility that anar and estar might have traditionally been found in free variation in a number of contexts, with 19th century texts showing a clear preference for estar.

Solomon and Saturn I, 89 a, “prologa prim”: An Exercise in Monastic Reading Practice

AbstractThis article reassesses the grammatically problematic half-lineprologa prima(l. 89a) in the Old English wisdom poemSolomon and Saturn I, and suggests that it ought to be emended to the grammatically viable reading of “prologa prim”. Line 89 a introduces a passage in which the words of the Pater Noster become anthropomorphised as warriors and attack the devil. I will argue that “prologa prim” is an exegetical exercise, informed by grammatical theory and liturgical practice, designed for an audience of monastic readers. This multivalent half-line offers different levels of meaning when read according to different permutations of language and metaphor, in a process analogous to the interpretation of scripture according to the influential model of fourfold exegesis. When read literally, as ‘the first of the initial letters’, “prologa prim” indicates the unfolding and time-bound process of reading. Previous scholars (Anlezark 2009; Anderson 1998) have noted the allusive references in line 89 a to Greeklogos(‘word’) and Old Englishprim(‘first hour’, ‘Prime office’), but not their full significance. Through these allusions, the reader shifts from a literal reading to a spiritual and metaphorical reading of the half-line, achieving a diachronic perspective of the Pater Noster’s recitation across time, and finally an atemporal perspective, reading in line 89 a a paraphrase of John 1:1, “In the beginning was the Word”. In conjunction with the subsequent episode of the battle, line 89 a forms an exemplum of the monastic practice oflectio divina. This example of ‘monastic poetics’ (O’Camb 2014; Niles 2019) moves from grammatical analysis to a vision of the Word.

Turkic morphology seen by the Arabic grammarians. The passive

This paper deals with the analyses of medieval Arab grammarians of passive and resultative verbs in Turkic. In Arabic grammatical theory, certain forms are correlated with unique meanings. In Arabic there are basically two types of passives: first, an internal apophonic passive, indicated by a vowel shift within the verbal root, e.g. /faˁila/ → /fuˁila/; secondly, a passive indicated by the prefix in- attached to the root, i.e. Form VII, which results in the infinitive pattern infiˁāl —yet verbal forms construed according to the VII paradigm are in addition often interpreted as resultative verbs. In Turkic, verbs can be passivized by adding an -Vl - to the verbal stem (under some criteria this is -Vn -), e.g. ˀur - ‘hit’ → ˀur -ul - ‘be hit’; the Turkish -Vn - form also expresses the reflexive form, e.g. ˀur -un - ‘hit oneself’. In addition, other suffixes may indicate passivization. This poses problems for the grammarians, which they tackle in similar but also very distinct ways: the distinctions between the two passive forms in Arabic, the missing resultative in Turkic, the passive in Turkic, the notion of stem in Turkic versus root in Arabic theory, the position of the inserted element, the criteria according to which the Turkic passive form is not -Vl - but instead -Vn -, to name but a few.

Special Nature of Verbs in Sign Languages

This paper is concerned with the special nature of Sign Language verbs, in particular to this research, Irish Sign Language (ISL) verbs. We use Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) (Van Valin 2005) to provide a definition of the structure of lexical entries that are sufficiently rich and universal in nature to represent ISL verbs. This work is part of research work in the development of a linguistically motivated computational framework for ISL. We use RRG (Van Valin and LaPolla 1997) as the theoretical framework of this study. RRG takes language to be a system of communicative social action, and accordingly, analysing the communicative functions of grammatical structures plays a vital role in grammatical description and theory from this perspective (Van Valin 2005). Using RRG provides significant theoretical and technical challenges within both RRG and software.
 We provide an account of the morphological and grammatical information that can be found within ISL verbs. We use the Signs of Ireland corpus (SOI) to access the relevant linguistic data pertinent to ISL (Leeson et al, 2006). Further to this we use ELAN software as an application tool, which allows us to view the corpus and collate relevant linguistic phenomena pertinent to ISL. We utilise the Event Visibility Hypothesis (EVH) (Wilbur 2008) in the development of our proposed lexicon architecture. We refer to Articulatory Structure Level (Murtagh 2018) in the development of a linguistically motivated computational definition of lexicon entries that are sufficiently robust in nature to represent ISL verbs within the RRG lexicon. We utilise this new level of lexical representation (Pustejovsky 1995), which describes the essential (computational) phonological parameters of an object as defined by the lexical item to cater specifically for the computational linguistic phenomena consistent with signed languages, in particular to this research ISL, enabling us to provide an adequate account of ISL verbs within the RRG lexicon.

Multiple functions of the Cantonese ‘wait’ verb dang2 and their historical development

Abstract The diachronic development of morphemes meaning ‘wait’ has not been well documented. This paper describes multiple functions of the ‘wait’ verb dang2 in Hong Kong Cantonese: (a) a verb meaning ‘be in need of’, (b) a permissive verb meaning ‘let’, (c) a causative verb meaning ‘cause’, (d) a temporal marker meaning ‘at, when’, (e) a particle for giving notice of a coming event, and (f) a subordinating conjunction signifying someone’s surprise. Four development paths are proposed to account for the multifunctionality: ‘wait’ > (a); ‘wait’ > (d); ‘wait’ > (b) > (e); and ‘wait’ > (c) > (f). This case draws attention to the potential of ‘wait’ morphemes to be employed to express various other abstract concepts and, furthermore, highlights the role of indirect sources in the theory of grammaticalization.

A Linguistic Issue In By NafīS AL-Dīn Abū L-Faraj Ibn Al-Kaṯār (Thirteenth Century)

Abstract The treatise by Nafīs al-Dīn Abū l-Faraj Ibn al-Kaṯār, also known as Shams al-Ḥukamā, active circa the end of the thirteenth century CE, is written in Middle Arabic in the Arabic script. Verses of the Torah and quotes from Samaritan religious poems are written in Samaritan Hebrew letters. The treatise is extant in a number of Samaritan manuscripts kept in various libraries in Israel and abroad. While the title of this work is , its contents encompass numerous topics in a variety of fields: linguistics, exegesis, religious law and more. Among the linguistic issues it addresses, for example are topics in phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. The present article discusses two interrelated linguistic issues in phonology and morphology, the first dealing with the conjugation of irregular verbs: the phonological discussion focuses on the concept of ‘iwaḍ (compensation) and in morphology we discuss I/y verbs and, by the way, also I/n verbs. In addition, I examine this work's affinities with the grammatical theories expounded by the Samaritan grammarian Ibn Mārūṭ and the rabbinic grammarian Yehuda Ḥayyūj.

‘V+V趋+NP+來’구조에 대한 再考

Based on the theory of grammaticalization, this paper will discuss whether ‘V+Vd+NP+lai’ has the identity as ‘V+Vd+lai’. ‘V+Vd+NP+lai’ is a structure created through different grammaticalization processes from ‘V+Vd+lai’ as follows: V+Vd+NP+lai : V+NP+lai > Vd+NP+lai > V+Vd+NP+lai V+Vd+lai : Vd+lai > V+Vd+lai According to the above diagram, the syntactic structure of ‘V+Vd+NP+lai’ is a combination of ‘lai’, which represents completion (realization), behind the V-D Structure in which a simple directional complement is combined. On the other hand ‘V+Vd+lai’ corresponds to V-D Structure having a compound directional complement. Therefore there is no identity between these two structures. This non-identity not only makes a difference in meaning between the two structures, but also creates different constraints in terms of syntactic. In particular, the difference in object components clearly reflects the absence of identity of the two structures. Specifically, in ‘V+Vd+NP+lai’, only ‘V+Vd’ is the predicate part, so the object ‘NP’ is mainly in charge of noun components. On the other hand, ‘V+Vd+lai’ is a kind of V-D Structure in which the entire sentence serves as a predicate, and if necessary, it can have an object after it. At this time, not only nouns (non-locative components) but also verbs and even clauses can appear as the object.

The Increased Ability in Constructing Sentence in Simple Present Tense with Picture Word Inductive Model

This research aimed to describe and analyze students’ proficiency in constructing sentence in simple present tense before and after applying the PWIM, and the influencing factors that affects students’ proficiency. The sample of this research is the 24 students of class 8B in Frater Don Bosco Junior High School Tomohon. This is an experimental type of research with qualitative and quantitative approach. A quasi-experimental, pretest and posttest one-group design is used in this research. The main theory used in this research is the theory of picture word inductive model. The data are gathered through observation, questionnaire, and test. A qualitative and quantitative method applied in analyzing the data. Meanwhile the other supported theory used are second language learning theory and grammatical theory. Based on the paired sample t-test conducted, it is known that the PWIM is significantly affect the students’ proficiency in constructing sentence in simple present tense.

Grammaticalization of reflexivity in Basque

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to provide a detailed overview of the changes undergone by the reflexive buru-construction in Basque under the light of grammaticalization theory. On the basis of quantitative historical data, the reflexive construction is argued to have undergone changes predicted by the grammaticalization path of reflexive markers: the distinction between regular and reflexive possessive pronouns is lost; anaphoric, non-reflexive uses of buru disappear; and number agreement between the subject and buru is no longer obligatory. The buru-construction is furthermore argued to have become more prevalent at the expense of other reflexivization strategies. As opposed to these changes, the reflexive construction seems to have degrammaticalized as well: the number of direct object uses of this construction decreases over time, and it occurs in subject position with more predicates in present-day written Basque than in the historical period. In view of these facts, an argument is made against unidirectional conceptions of grammaticalization. External motivations for these developments, such as the standardization of the language, are also considered.

Bilderlosigkeit und anthropomorphe Darstellungen in den deutschen und niederländischen Grammatiken des Barock: sprachwissenschaftlich verursachte und konfessionell motivierte Sichtweise

Human figures were a suitable means of assigning human qualities to non-human entities, thereby making an abstract phenomenon more concrete and easier to understand. During the baroque period, one of the widely used techniques in the works of German and Dutch grammarians was visual presentation of their material in tables. Illustrative examples or tables and dichotomies were differently preferred as visual material in the language teachings of representatives of the confessions as well as the most important philosophical and grammatical theories, which were respected and had authority in the 17th century. The iconoclasm of the Calvinist authors, that is, aniconism and removal of images from churches, correlated with the reluctance of the grammarians to visualise their subjects in pictures. For presenting the contents, language teachers chose a frugal form, namely the tables and the dichotomic method, which is usually manifest in the composition of grammar books and description of the most important characteristics of the parts of speech.

Wh-Movement, Islands, and Resumption in L1 and L2 Spanish: Is (Un)Grammaticality the Relevant Property?

This study reflects on the meaning of the results of a self-paced grammaticality judgment task that tested island configurations (with gaps and resumptive pronouns) in L1 and L2 speakers of Spanish. Results indicated that resumptive pronouns do not rescue extractions from islands, as traditionally assumed in grammatical theory, and propose that islands are essentially an interpretative or processing matter, and not only a grammatical one, as in Kluender (1998). This study further challenges the L2 studies that proposed that L2 learners are fundamentally different from native speakers because they usually fail to reject island configurations, and shows that L2 learners are sensitive to the same processing and interpretative mechanisms that native speakers employ to parse island configurations. Generally speaking, this study proposes that apparent purely syntactic restrictions such as extractions from islands might not depend on their grammatical formation, but on other relevant factors such as plausibility, embedding, and processability, which together with grammatical well-formedness configure a more holistic and useful notion of linguistic acceptability.